Chapter 10 Launching the New Ship of State
Growing Pains
- Population Growth
o Doubling every 25 years when Constitution launched 1789
§ 4 mil people recorded in first official census of 1790
§ Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston, Baltimore biggest cities.
o Population 90% rural
§ Despite flourishing cities
§ 5% lived west of Appalachian Mountains
· Incl. Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio
· Were particularly restive and dubiously loyal
o Depended on Mississippi river mouth which were controlled by Spaniards
· MW Spanish and British agents moved freely among settlers
o Promised independence
o AR many wondered whether US ever would grow
Washington for President
- Unanimously drafted as president by Electoral College in 1789
o Only president to be honored by unanimity
o Was perhaps only president who commanded followers by strength of character than by arts of politician.
§ Traveled from NYC, temporary capital
§ Solemnly and somewhat nervously took oath of office on April 30, 1789.
- Establishes Cabinet
o Was not mentioned in Constitution
§ Only mentioned president “may require” written opinions of heads of executive branch departments.
o HV process was very tedious that cabinet meetings gradually evolved in Washington administration.
o At first only 3 full-fledged department heads served under president
§ Secretary of state Thomas Jefferson
§ Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton
§ Secretary of War Henry Knox
The Bill of Rights
- The promise of a bill of rights
o Antifederalists criticized Constitution drafted at Philadelphia for its failure to provide guarantees of individual rights
o Many states ratified on promise that it would soon be amended
o TF Constitution required amendments
- Process of amendments
o Proposed through two ways
§ Through a new constitutional convention requested by 2/3 of states
§ By 2/3 vote of both houses
o HV Madison feared new convention might be “unstable” due to narrow federalist victory in ratification struggle
§ TF Madison drafted amendments himself
§ Guided them through congress
· Used intellectual and political skills which made him leading figure.
- Soon were adapted by necessary # of states
o First ten amendments to Constitution popularly known as the Bill of Rights
§ Protected most precious American principles
· Religion, speech, and press.
· Right to bear arms, to be tried by a jury
· Right to assemble and petition the gov for redress of grievances.
· Prohibits cruel and unusual punishments and arbitrary gov of seizure of private property.
o To guard v. danger that enumerating such rights might lead to the conclusion that they were the only ones protected
§ AR Madison inserted 9th Amendment
· Declares that certain rights “shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people”
· TF these are not the only rights that are owned by the people
§ Also inserted 10th Amendment
· Reserves all rights not only in Constitution “to the states respectively, or to the people”.
· TF preserved strong central gov while specifying protections for minority and individual liberties.
o AR swung federalist pendulum back in an antifederalist direction.
- Judiciary Act of 1789
o Created effective federal courts
o Organized the Supreme Court
§ W/ Chief Justice and five associates
§ John Jay, Madison’s collaborator on The Federalist became first chief justice
o Also organized federal district and circuit courts and est. office of attorney general
Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit
- Key figure of new government was Alexander Hamilton
o Treasury Secretary, native of British West Indies
o Regarded as one who loved his adopted country more than countrymen
§ Loyalty to republican experiment doubted.
§ While Hamilton regarded himself as a prime minister in Washington’s cabinet that would occasionally deal w/ other departmens’ affairs
· Incl archrival, Thomas Jefferson’s department.
- Was a financial wizard
o Set out to correct economic problems that crippled A of Confed.
§ Shaped fiscal policies of admin to favor wealthier groups
· AR would gratefully lend government monetary and political support
· TF new federal regime thrived and propertied classes would fatten
· AR prosperity would trickle down to the masses.
o First objective to bolster national credit
§ W/o public confidence in gov, Hamilton couldn’t secure funds
§ TF Hamilton urged Congress to fund entire national debt “at par” and to assume completely the debts from Revolution.
· “Funding at par” = federal gov pay off debts at face value and accumulated interest
o AR then enormous total of $54 mil.
· MW many believed infant Treasurey incapable of meeting those obligations
o AR gov bonds depreciated to 10 or 15 cents on dollar
o HV speculators had many of the dollar
§ TF when Congress passed Hamilton’s measure in 1790, speculators grabbed for more dollars.
- MW Hamilton willing to have new gov shoulder additional obligations.
o TF asked Congress to “assume” debts of states
§ Was about $21.5 million.
o Made convincing case that state debts could be regarded as proper national obligation.
§ B/c they had not been from Revolution
§ Also because Hamilton believed this would chain states more tightly to “federal chariot”
· TF would shift attachment of wealthy creditors from states to the federal gov.
· AR support of rich for national admin was crucial link in Hamilton’s political strategy of strengthening central government.
o AR states burdened w/ heavy debts incl. Massachusetts delighted by Hamilton’s proposal.
§ HV Virginia and states w/ small debts were less intrigued
· TF didn’t want state debts assumed but wanted forthcoming federal district (DC) to be located on Potomac river.
o Would have commerce and prestige.
· MW Hamilton also persuaded a reluctant Jefferson to line up enough votes in Congress for assumption.
§ AR Bargain effectively carried out in 1790
Customs Duties and Excise Taxes
- National debt swells up
o To $75 million due to Hamilton’s insistence on honoring federal and state obligations alike.
§ Those less determined to est. healthy public credit could have avoided a $13 million in back interest and state debts entirely.
- HV Hamilton “Father of National Debt” had a plan
o Believed national debts would keep nation together
§ To more creditors to whom the gov owed money, the more ppl there would be w/ a personal stake in success of his ambitious enterprise.
§ Objective was to make a debt or liability for vitalizing the financial system as well as government.
- The source of money
o Customs duties from tariffs.
§ Where tariff revenues depended on vigorous foreign trade, a crucial link to strategy for new republic
o Tariff laws
§ First one imposed a low tax of 8% on dutiable imports
· Speedily passed by first Congress 1789 b4 Hamilton sworn in
· Main goal was revenue, but was also designed to erect low protective wall around infant industries.
§ Hamilton argued strongly in favor of more protection for well-to-do manufacturing groups
· Believed to see a industrial revolution that would soon reach America.
· HV Congress still dominated by agricultural and commercial interests
o TF only voted two slight increases in tariff during Washington’s presidency.
o Internal revenue
§ 1791 Hamilton secured from Congress an excise tax on a few domestic items, incl. Whiskey
· 7 cents a gallon affected backcountry farmers
· AR forced farmers to reduce and liquefy to smaller proportions
o Very free whiskey trade on frontier in form of distilled liquor that it was used for money.
Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank
- Hamilton proposes a Bank of the United States
o Was an enthusiastic admirerer of English
§ TF used model of Bank of England.
· AR included a powerful private institution of which gov would be the major stockholder
· Where federal treasurey would deposit its surplus monies.
§ TF central gov would have a convenient strongbox and federal funds would stimulate business by remaining in circulation.
· AR bank would also print urgently needed paper money TF provide a sound and stable national currency.
- Jefferson argues against the bank
o Insisted no specific authorization that gave non-federal, non-state organizations powers.
§ AR concluded states, not Congress, had power to charter banks.
§ Believed that Constitution should be interpreted “literally” or “strictly”
· Jefferson + states’ rights diciples embraced theory of “strict construction”
- Hamilton retaliates
o Argued what the Constitution did not forbid it permitted.
§ While Jefferson believed what it did not permit it forbade
o Invoked clause of Constitution that says Congress may pass any laws “necessary and proper” to carry out powers part of any government agencies.
§ TF as Congress was empowered to collect taxes and regulate trade, national bank was necessary.
§ AR via “implied powers”, Congress fully justified to est. Bank of United States.
· Hence develops “loss construction” by invoking the “elastic clause” of the Constitution.
o A precedent for enormous federal power.
- Washington reluctantly signed bank measure into law
o Had been debated hotly in Congress
§ Most enthusiastic support from commercial and financial centers of North
§ Strongest opposition from agricultural South.
- The Bank of the United States
o Created by Congress in 1791
§ Chartered for 20 years
o Located in Philadelphia and to have a capital of $10 mil, where 1/5 of it owned by fed gov.
§ Stock open to public.
§ Oversubscribed immediately by a milling crowd
Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania
- Whiskey Rebellion sharply challenged new national gov.
o In western Pennsylvania 1794
o AR of Hamilton’s high excise tax on the homespun pioneer folk
§ Regarded tax as burden on economic necessity and a medium of exchange
§ Preachers of gospel were also paid in rye.
o TF rye and corn crops distilled into alcohol were more cheaply transported than bales of grain.
o AR distillers retaliate
§ Erected whiskey poles like liberty poles during anti-stamp tax days
§ “Liberty and No Excise”
§ Tarred and feathered revenue officers, brought collection to halt.
- George Washington alarmed by “self-created societies”
o TF summoned militia of several states
§ Anxious moments followed when doubt whether men from other states would crush a rebellion in a sister state
§ Eventually army of 13,000 rallied
o When reached Western Pennsylvania, found no retaliation.
§ 3 rebels killed, convicted culprits pardoned
o HV government commanded new respect
§ Foes of gov condemned gov for using brutal force to crush a small gnat.
The Emergence of Political Parties
- Hamilton’s economic feats established gov credit
o Treasurey could now borrow from Netherlands on favorable terms.
§ HV Hamilton’s funding assumption, excise tax, the bank, and suppression of Whiskey Rebellion created political liabilities. attacked states’ rights.
- Americans doubted new Constitution
o Would have never approved it if they knew that states’ were going to be overshadowed by federal powers.
o AR opposition organization began to build.
§ Partly developed from Hamilton v. Jefferson rivalry.
· When Washington took oath had factions incl. Whigs v. Tories, federalists v. antifederalistsw.
· Factions faded away when cause had triumphed or fizzled.
§ Founders at Philadelphia did not envision permanent political parties
· Organized opposition to democracy appeared tainted w/ disloyalty.
· V. nationalism and cause of Revolution.
o TF when Jefferson and Madison organized opposition to Hamiltonian program confined activities to Congress
§ Did not anticipate permanent and popular party.
o HV as antagonism v. Hamilton rose, first “political parties” emerged
§ Existed since 1825 (see diagram)
- Political parties provide the balance
o Party out of power, the “loyal opposition” traditionally plays invaluable role of keeping gov in balance.
o Ensured politics never drifts too far left or right.
The Impact of the French Revolution
- End of Washington’s first administration 1793
o Hamilton’s domestic policies had started two political camps
§ Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans
§ Hamiltonian Federalists
o MW weeks after Washington’s inauguration in 1789
§ French Revolution rose
§ 26 years of chaos before Europe goes into peace, HV French Revolution affected much of civilized world.
- First stage of French Revolution.
o Rebellion was peaceful
o Successful attempt to impose constitutional restrictions on Louis XVI
§ TF American people who loved liberty and deploring despotism, supported them.
o AR thought of French Revolution as second chapter of their own Revolution.
§ Only few radical conservative Federalists who feared change, reform and “leveling” principles opposited the “mobocracy”.
§ HV Jeffersonians were overjoyed.
- Second phase of French Revolution 1792
o French declared war on Austria.
o HV French citizens were hurled back my invading foreigners
§ MW proclaimed itself a republic
o MW America flared w/ democracy
§ Sang revolutionary songs and renamed various street for democratic ideals
o HV retaliation v. king
§ King beheaded in 1793, church attacked and Reign of Terror began.
· Period of violence b/w opposing factions after French Revolution.
- Fear in the Federalists.
o Federalist aristocrats eyed Jeffersonian masses apprehensively.
§ Many aristocrats beheaded
§ Their approval of early Revolution turned almost overnight.
o MW Jeffersonians regretted the bloodshed but felt that “despotism to liberty in a feather bed” could not be expected.
§ That a few thousand aristocrats were cheap price to pay for freedom.
- Indirect peril for America
o Earlier battles of French Revolution did not hurt America directly
o HV now Britain sucked into conflict.
o Would soon spread to America.
Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation
- Franco-American alliance of 1778 was termed to last “forever”.
o TF bound America to help the French defend West Indies v. future foes
§ British fleets certain to attack these strategic islands.
- Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans favored honoring alliance.
o Supported liberal ideals of French Revolutions.
o Eager to v. Britain, a recent foe for French, a recent friend.
§ Argued US owed French its freedom.
- MW Washington unswayed by clamor of crowd.
o Believed that war had to be avoided at all costs.
§ Backed by Hamilton
§ Nation in 1793 was militarily, economically weak and politically disunited.
o Reasoned that if America could avoid wars w/ Europe for a generation or so, then would be populous and powerful enough to assert maritime (related to sea) rights with strength and successes.
o AR strategy of delay was chief policy of Founding Fathers
§ Strategy of playing for time while others fought America’s battles.
§ Hamilton and Jefferson were in agreement here.
- TF issued Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation in 1793
o Shortly after outbreak of war b/w French, Britain
o Proved to be very influential document
§ Was US’s first formal declaration of separation from Old World quarrels
§ A major prop of promoting isolationism
§ Highly controversial
· Pro-French Jeffersonians enraged, esp. by Washington’s method of announcing it unilaterally w/o consulting Congress.
· Pro-British Federalists in agreement.
- Debate of Neutrality Proclamation
o Citizen Edmon Genet lands in Charleston
§ Representative of French Republic.
§ Took advantage of existing Franco-American alliance.
· Met by enthusiastic Jeffersonian Republicans.
· TF foolishly came to believe Neutrality Proclamation did not reflect true wishes of American people.
o AR embarked on un-neutral activity not authorized by French Alliance
§ Recruited armies to invade Spanish Florida, Louisiana and British Canada.
§ TF Jefferson and Madison soon confused by his actions.
o MW Genet threatened to appeal over the head of “Washington” causing president to demand his withdrawal.
§ Was soon replaced.
- Neutrality Proclamation effects
o Illustrates truth that self-interest is determination of alliances.
§ 1778 both France, America could gain. In 1793 only French.
§ Though America did not backstab obligation as French never officially called them to honor it.
o MW Proclamation benefited French
§ French West Indies urgently needed Yankee foodstuffs.
§ TF if America entered war v. British, British would have blocked American coast and cut off the supplies.
Embroilments with Britain
- Britain defies peace treaty of 1783
o Retained chains of northern frontier posts on U.S. soil.
§ Reluctant to abandon lucrative fur trade in Great Lakes
§ Hoped to build Indian buffer state v. ambitious Americans.
o Openly sold firearms and firewater to Indians of Miami Confederacy
§ Alliance of 8 Indian nations who terrorized Americans by invading their lands.
o On border of Ohio River, 1790 and 1791 Little Turtle, war chief of Miamias, defeated US armies.
§ Killed hundreds of soldiers
§ One of worst US defeats in history of the frontier.
- General “Mad Anthony” Wayne retaliates v. Miamis
o 1794 new army formed under Wayne.
o Routed Miamis at Battle of Fallen Timbers.
§ MW British refused to shelter Indians fleeing from battle
§ TF Indians were abandoned/ “betrayed” by British and officered peace to Wayne.
o AR Treaty of Greenville 1795
§ Confederacy gave up vast tracts of Old Northwest incl. present-day Indiana and Ohio.
§ AR Indians would receive a lump-sum payment of 20,000 in addition to annual annuity of 9,000
· Also incl. rights to hunt lands they ceded
· Gained recognition of their sovereign status.
§ Though treaty was unequal, Indians felt it put limits on ability of US to decide fate of Indian peoples.
- MW British ignored America’s rights as a neutral
o British eager to starve out French West Indies
§ Naturally expected US to defend them under alliance.
o TF commanders of Royal Navy struck savagely
§ Seized 300 US merchant ships
· Forced many into service on British vessels.
- Jeffersonians call out for war.
o Americans should once again fight George III, or at least place an embargo on oppressor.
- HV Federalists resisted demands for drastic action.
o Due to Hamilton’s high hopes for economic development
§ Depended on trade w/ Britain
o TF war w/ what was mightiest commercial empire would ruin financial system.
Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell
- Washington sends Chief Justice John Jay in last resort to avert war
o 1794 sent to London.
o MW Jeffersonians unhappy over choice
§ Feared John Jay, a “notorious” Federalist and Anglophile (one fond of English culture) would sell out his country.
§ At presentation he routinely kissed the queen’s hand.
- Jay wins few concessions
o Hamilton sabotaged deal.
§ Fearful of war w/ Britain TF secretly supplied Bhritish w/ details of America’s bargaining strategy.
o HV British promised to evacuate the chain of posts on US soil.
§ Inspired little promise as it was promised to same John Jay in 1783
o Britain consented to pay damages for recent seizures of ships
- HV British did not mention
o Cases regarding further maritime seizures or stopping supplying arms to Indians.
o Also forced Jay to bind US to paying debts still owed to British merchants on pre-Revolutionary accounts.
- Unpopular pact angers Jeffersonians
o They felt treaty was a betrayal of Jeffersonian South
§ Southern planters would have to pay major share of pre-Revolutionary debts
§ MW Federalist shippers would be collecting damages for recent seizures.
o AR Washington’s huge popularity compromised by controversy.
- Unforeseen consequences of treaty.
o Spain feared treaty would lead to Anglo-American alliance.
§ TF Pinckney’s Treaty of 1795 w/ Spain granted US virtually everything they demanded
· Incl. free navigation of Mississippi and largely disputed territory north of Florida.
- MW Washington retires tired of diplomatic and partisan battles
o Retired after 2nd term
§ Choice contributed powerfully to est. two-term tradition for American presidents.
§ Delivered Farewell Address 1796
· Never delivered orally but in newspapers
· Strongly advised against “permanent alliances” like Franco-American Treaty of 1778.
o HV Washington didn’t oppose all alliances, but only favored “temporary alliances” for “extraordinary emergencies”
o Contributions as president
§ Central government had fiscal (pertaining to public treasury or revenues) strong base established.
§ West was expanding while merchants were traveling among the seas.
§ Had kept America out of overseas and foreign wars.
· AR experimental stage passed and chair to be passed to “less impressive figure”.
o HV as he left he was still suffered from partisan insults and abuse.
John Adams Becomes President
- Seeking for the next president
o Alexander Hamilton best known member of Federalist party.
§ HV financial policies made him very unpopular.
o AR Federalists forced to turn to Washington’s vice president, the experienced but ungracious John Adams
o MW Jeffersonians naturally rallied behind Thomas Jefferson.
- Intense presidential campaigns.
o Exalted presence of Washington imposed some restrains but now anger of parties broke apart.
§ Issues of campaign focused heavily on personalities
§ MW Jeffersonians attacked too-forceful crushing of Whiskey Rebellion and Jay’s treaty.
- John Adams voted to become next president
o Most of support from New England
o 71 votes to 68 in Electoral College
§ Jefferson, the runner-up became vice president.
§ The possibility of such an inharmonious two-party combo later removed by 12th Amendment in 1804
o One of most ablest statesmen of his day, HV was a tactless intellectual aristocrat w/ no appeal to masses and no desire to cultivate any.
o MW had stepped into Washington’s shoes which nobody could hope to fill.
o Also Adams was hated by Hamilton
§ Hamilton resigned from Treasurey 1795 and now headed war faction of the Federalist party “High Federalists”
§ Secretly plotted w/ certain members of cabinet v. president.
· TF president troubled w/ unreliable cabinet
Unofficial Fighting with France
- French were infuriated by Jay’s Treaty.
o Saw as a step towards alliance w/ perpetual foe of Britain.
§ As a violation of Franco-American Treaty of 1778.
- TF French warships retaliate
o Seized defenseless American merchant vessels.
o MW refused to receive America’s newly appointed envoy, threatened him w/ arrest.
- John Adams kept his head and tried again to reach an agreement w/ French
o True to Washington’s policy of steering clear of war at all costs
o Sent a diplomatic commission of three men.
§ Incl. John Marshall, future chief justice.
§ Envoys reached Paris 1797, hoped to meet Talleyrand the French foreign minister.
· Were approached by three go-betweens later referred as X, Y and Z
· XYZ demanded a loan of 32 mil florins and $250,000 for privilege of talking w/ Talleyrand.
o TF immediately broke down negotiations
o John Marshall returned 1798 hailed as a hero for steadfastness.
- War hysteria sweeps across US.
o “Millions for defense but not one cent for tribute”
o MW Federalists delighted at unexpected turn of affairs where Jeffersonians hung heads in shame over misbehavior of French friends.
- MW war preparations in the US
o Despite considerable Jeffersonian opposition in Congress
o Navy Department created
§ 3-ship navy expanded
o US Marine Corps, disbanded at end of Revolutionary War, reestablished.
o New army of 10,000 men authorized but never fully raised.
- Engaging in unofficial sea hostilities for two years 1798 - 1800
o US privateers of new navy captured over 80 French armed vessels
§ Though several hundred Yankee merchant ships lost to enemy.
Adam Puts Patriotism Above Party
- France does not want war
o France had hands full in Europe
o Talleyrand realized fighting US would mean one more foe.
o MW British lent Americans cannon and other war supplies and drove closer to Americans.
§ TF Talleyrand let it be known that next American minister would be received w/ respect.
- Adams was on verge of proclaiming war
o Believed that along with his conquest of the Floridas and Louisiana would bring new support from Federalist party, perhaps a second term to himself.
o HV popularity did not sway his final judgement, as he, like other Founding Fathers realized that war must be avoided while country was relatively weak.
- TF Adams 1799 submitted to Senate the name of a new minister to France
o MW Hamilton and war faction enraged.
o HV Jeffersonian and reasonable Federalists were favorable for one last try for peace.
- Envoys reached Paris in 1800
o “Little Corporal” Corsican Napoleon Bonaparte recently seized dictatorial power.
§ Eager to break free of American conflict to continue redraw map of Europe and perhaps create a New World Empire in Louisiana.
- TF Convention of 1800 signed
o France agreed to annul 22 year old treaty.
§ Ended US’s only military alliance for another 150 years.
o MW America agreed to pay damage claims of American shippers
- John Adams contributions.
o Due to his belated push for peace
§ Though moved in part by jealousy of Hamilton
o Also unintentionally paved way to peaceful purchase of Louisiana 3 years later.
§ If America went into war, Napoleon would not have sold Louisiana to Jefferson on any terms in 1803.
The Federalist Witch Hunt
- MW Federalists developed on anti-French frenzy and drove through Congress in 1798 many laws designed to minimize Jeffersonian foes
o “Alien Laws”
o First aimed at pro-Jeffersonian “aliens”
§ Most European immigrants scorned by aristocratic Federalist Party, but welcomed as voters by less prosperous but more democratic Jeffersonians.
- They lacked wealth
§ TF Fedearlist Congress, to discourage the “dregs” of Europe, raised the residence requirements for aliens from 5 years to 14.
§ Drastic new law violated traditional US policy of open-door hospitality and speedy assimilation.
o Second one empowered president to deport dangerous foreigners in time of peace and to deport or imprison them in time of war.
§ HV was arbitrary grant of executive power contrary to American tradition.
§ Alien Laws were never forced however.
o “Lockjaw” Sedition Act was last measure.
§ Direct attack of two freedoms guaranteed in Bill of Rights.
§ Freedom of speech and press (First Amendment)
- Prohibited anyone who impeded policies of gov or falsely defamed its officials incl president
- Would be subject to heavy fine and imprisonment.
§ MW Federalists thought it justified
- Verbal violence of days was unrestrained and editors, some exiled aliens, defamed Adam’s anti-French policies.
- Intolerable Sedition Act
o Many outspoken Jeffersonian editors indicted (charged) under Sedition Act and 10 brought to trial.
§ All were convicted due to juries swayed via prejudiced Federalist judges
§ Some of victims were harmless partisans.
§ Matthew Lyon the “Spitting Lion” gained fame via spitting in face of a Federalist
- Sentenced to 4 months in jail for writing of defamation of President Adams.
o Sedition Act was in direct conflict w/ Constitution
§ HV Supreme Court dominated by Federalists, TF of no mind to declare it unconstitutional
§ MW had written law to expire in 1801 so law could not be used against them if they lost next election.
o AR of Federalists attempt to crush opposition party, many converts to Jeffersonians.
- Marked a sweeping victory of Federalists.
o Anti-French hysteria contributed to hands of witch-hunting conservatives.
The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions
- Jeffersonians retaliate towards Alien and Sedition Laws
o Feared that if Federalists would choke free speech and press, would then wipe out other constitutional guarantees.
§ Incl. removing his own political party, TF result in a dangerous one-party dictatorship.
- TF fearing prosecution for sedition, Jefferson secretly penned a series of resolutions approved by Kentucky legislature in 1798 and 1799.
o Friend James Madison drafted similar but less extreme statement adopted by Virginia legislature 1798
- Both stressed the compact theory
o Theory popular among English political philosophers in 17thh and 18th centuries.
o Meant that 13 sovereign states, in creating the fed gov, had entered a “compact”, contract regarding its jurisdiction (right to administer justice)
§ National gov was consequently agent or creation of the states.
§ TF individual states were final judges of whether their agent had broken “compact” by overstepping the authority originally granted.
o AR Jefferson’s Kentucky resolutions concluded federal regime exceeded constitutional powers
§ That nullification of Alien, Sedition acts a “rightful remedy”.
- HV no other state legislatures supported.
o Some flatly refused
o Other chiefly Federalist states condemned them.
§ Argued that the people not states made the original compact, that it was up to Supreme Court not states to nullify unconstitutional legislation passed by Congress.
§ Above practice not specifically authorized by Constitution was finally adopted by Supreme Court 1803.
o TF Virginia and Kentucky resolutions were a brilliant formulation of extreme states’ rights.
§ AR later used by southerners to support nullification and ultimately secession.
§ HV none of Founding Fathers intended to break it up
· In their eyes resolutions were to oppose Federalist party and unseat it.
Federalists v. Democratic-Republicans.
- Stark differences b/w two parties (see diagram)
o MW federalists of pre-Constitution period (1787-1789) became Federalists in 1790s.
§ Largely welded by Hamilton into effective group by 1793
§ Openly advocated rule by “best people”
§ “Those who own the country ought to govern it” – John Jay
§ Distrusted democracy, feared “swayability” of the untutored commoners
· Due to intellectual arrogance and Tory tastes
§ Strong central gov w/ power to crush democratic excesses like Shays’ Rebellion
· Supported protecting lives and estates or wealthy and subordinate sovereignty-loving states.
§ Gov should support private enterprise, not interfere w/ it.
· Attitude from merchants, manufacturers, shippers along Atlantic whom made up majority fo Federalist support.
- Few Hamiltonians inland.
§ Somewhat pro-British
· Some still had Loyalist sentiments.
§ Recognized that trade w/ British important for Hamilton’s fiscal machinery.
o Democratic Republicans or sometimes simply Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson.
§ Jefferson known for ability to lead people rather than drive them, esp through lack of oratory skills.
§ Strongest appeal was to middle class and underprivileged.
§ Was himself aristocratic former plantation.
· “Should” have been a Federalist
§ HV had uncommon sympathy for common people
§ “I have sworn upon the alter of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over mind of man”.
o Democratic Republican beliefs
§ Demanded weak central gov.
· Believed best gov was one that governed least.
§ Power should be retained by states.
· Where people, in close contact w/ local affairs, could keep closer eye w/ public servants, or else a dictatorship might develop.
§ Central power to be kept minimum through strict interpretation of Constitution.
§ National debt which he saw as a curse the later generations did not deserve, to be paid off.
§ No special privileges for special classes, esp. manufacturers
· Most of Jeffersonians farmers, agrarians.
· Regarded farming ennobling as it kept people from cities and close to the land and God.
§ Most followers naturally from agricultural South and southwest.
§ Advocated rule of the people.
· Favored gov for the people but not by all the people.
· Incl. men literate enough where universal education would have to precede universal suffrage.
- Jefferson argued ignorant incapable of self-government.
· HV had faith in masses when taught.
§ Feared landlessness would increase dependency on landowning superiors.
· TF felt class of landless class of voters be avoided partly by slavery.
- Blacks ensured poor whites would remain independent landowners.
- AR w/o slavery poor whites would have to provide cheap labor that would eventually become poorer.
· TF was a flaw in his democratic impulses
o HV Jefferson was generally openminded
§ Confidence in white freemen able to become responsible
§ Championed (supported) freedom of speech
· W/o it misdeeds of tyranny couldn’t be revealed
§ Would prefer “newspapers w/o gov” than “government w/o newspapers”
§ HV Jefferson suffered more foul abuse from editorial pens than any other except perhaps Lincoln.
o Generally pro-French
§ Believed it was America’s advantage to support liberal ideals of French Revolution
§ V. support reaction of British Tories.
- TF Conflicts over domestic and foreign policy undermined unity and questioned viability of American experiment in democracy.
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