Chapter 20 Girding for War: The north and the South
· Lincoln took office March 4 1861
o Disguised to prevent assassination.
o Became president w/ 7 states departed and 8 more about to.
The Menace of Secession
· Inaugural address firm yet conciliatory
o Would be no conflict unless South provoked it.
o Secession was impractical as “physically speaking we cannot separate”
§ Appalachian Mountains and Mississippi River were not physical boundaries.
· Uncontested secession = new problems
o How much national debt to be assumed by South, what portion of territories to be allotted (areas mostly won by southern blood), how would fugitive slave issue be resolved.
§ Underground railroad would only have to carry slaves to Ohio River.
o European nations could play divide and conquer and make one side go against the other.
§ British colonies would be safe from Yankee harm.
§ European imperialists could defy Monroe Doctrine.
South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter
· As seceding states left, many seized US arsenals, mints and other property within borders.
o When Lincoln became prez, only two sig forts in South still flew Stars and Stripes.
§ Most important was Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor.
· Fort Sumter predicament
o Stronghold had provisions to not last long.
§ TF w/o resupplies, commander would have to surrender w/o firing a shot.
o HV if he sent reinforcements, SC would fight back as they would not tolerate federal fort blocking their most important Atlantic seaport.
· AR Lincoln said an expedition would be sent to provision (not reinforce, though SC saw it that way) the garrison.
o MW Union naval force started towards Fort Sumter
§ Seen as act of aggression by South.
· TF April 12 1861Carolinians opened fire on fort.
o 34 hours bombardment, lost no lives, garrison surrendered.
o Shocked North – “Remember Fort Sumter” “Save the Union”
o Previously: “Wayward sisters, depart in peace” – North wanted peaceful secession.
§ Supported by commander of the army war hero General Winfield Scott.
· HV now North wanted to fight.
o TF issued call to states for 75,000 militiamen
§ Too enthusiastic that many were turned away.
o Proclaimed a leaky blockade of Southern seaports.
· AR of aggression Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina to join later.
o Richmond Virginia replaced Montgomery, Alabama as the Confederate capital.
§ Was too near Washington for strategic comfort on either side.
Brothers’ Blood and Border Blood
· Only slave states left were crucial Border States
o Missouri, Kentucky, MD Delaware, and later West Virginia (the “mountain white” area illegally removed itself from Virginia in mid 1861)
· If North had fired first shot, some or all of these states would have seceded and South probably would have won.
· Border states crucial as they contained a white population more than half the entire Confederacy.
o MD, Kentucky and MO almost double the manufacturing capacity of the South
o And increase by nearly half its supply of horses and mules.
o MW strategic Ohio River b/w Kentucky and West Virginia.
§ Tributaries – Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers deep into Confederacy land where much of its grain, gunpowder and iron was produced.
· TF Lincoln: hoped to have God on his side, but had to have Kentucky.
· MW Lincoln also began to practically attempt to “win over” Border States
o MD declared martial law where needed and sent in troops as it threatened to cut off Washington from North.
o Put soldiers in western VA and MO, where they fought besides Unionists in local civil war + Civil War
· Also released public statements to keep Border States in Union
o Lincoln declared he was not fighting to free blacks.
§ Where antislavery declaration would have lost Border States.
§ Also antislavery war was unpopular in Butternut region of southern Ohio, Indiana, IL.
· Area largely settled by pro-Southerners.
o TF repeatedly stated Civil War was to save the Union.
· MW the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Seminoles) sided w/ Confeds.
o Cherokees owned slaves and felt themselves common w/ South cause.
o Alliance - Confed agreed to take over federal payments to tribes, allowed tribe delegates to Confed Congress in return for tribes supplying troops.
§ MW rival faction of Cherokees and most of Plains Indians sided w/ Union.
· Was not rewarded well after war.
· Also many northern volunteers from Southern states, Southern volunteers from northern states.
o “Mountain whites” of South > 50,000, loyal slave states > 300,000 soldiers to Union.
The Balance of Forces
· Confederacy advantages.
o Fought defensively behind interior lines.
§ North had to conquer large territory.
o South did not have to win war to win independence, only to block off attack.
o Higher morale > fought for own soil, self-det and culture.
o More talented officers incl. General Robert E. Lee
§ Lincoln previously offered him command of Northern armies HV when Virginia seceded, felt honor-bound to state.
§ Chief lieutenant Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson.
o Accustomed to fighting by managing horses and bearing arms from boyhood.
§ Good soldiers and spirit
· Confederacy disadvantages
o Lacked factories
§ HV managed to be self sufficient in weaponry via seizing fed weapons, running Union blockades.
o HV still shortages of uniforms, blankets.
§ Despite supply of farms, often had supply problems caused by breakdown of South’s ineffective transportation system (North attacked railroads)
o Economy (contrast w/ North)
§ North = ¾ of nation’s wealth, ¾ of 30,000 miles of railroads.
o North controlled sea
§ Superior navy = blockade which would destroy Southern supplies and soon morale.
§ Enabled North to exchange grain for supplies from Europe in addition to their own manufacturing.
o Less people than North.
§ Loyal states = 22 mil, seceding states 9 mil, incl 3.5 mil slaves.
§ North had many immigrants from Europe even during war (approx 800,000, many of them British, Irish, German, where many to enlist in army)
· 1/5 Union forces foreign.
· Northern disadvantages
o HV Northern soldiers less prepared, but would eventually adapt.
o Few effective leaders in beginning, forced Lincoln to trail-and-error until he reached Ulysses S. Grant.
· TF in beginning South had much higher chance of “winning” (higher than 13 colonies in 1776)
o If Border States seceded, uncertain states turned against Union, Northern defeatism demanded armistice, Britain/France broke blockade, South probably would have won.
Dethroning King Cotton
- Previously successful revolutions due to foreign intervention.
o South counted on it, did not get it, and lost
o MW European’s ruling classes were openly sympathetic to Confederate cause, ong abhorred example of democratic experiment and supported South’s semifeudal, aristocratic social order.
- HV masses of Britain and to some extent France supporting North.
o Many read Uncle Tom’s Cabin and thought that war might extinguish slavery if North victorious.
o If their government intervened, had the power to not work.
- MW British textile mills also depended on American South for 75% of cotton supplies.
o HV Southern King Cotton had been very productive in 1857 – 1860 that enormous exports of cotton piled up in British warehouses.
§ Real pinch would not come until 1.5 years later
§ HV by then Lincoln announced his slave-emancipation policy, and the “wage slaves” of Britain were not going to demand a war to defend the slaveowners in the South. (What motivation did they have?)
- British “cotton famine” also relieved when Americans sent over cargoes of foodstuffs.
o Union armies captured/bought supplies of cotton and shipped them to Britain.
o MW Confeds ran a limited quantity through blockade.
§ MW cotton growers in Egypt and India responded to high prices and increased their output.
o Booming war industry in England (which supplied both North and South) relieved unemployment.
- King Wheat and King Corn (of Northern agriculture) more potent than cotton.
o During war years were blessed w/ ideal weather, effectively harvested in McCormick’s mechanical reaper.
o MW British suffered bad harvests, so forced to import grain from America, which happened to have cheapest + most abundant supply.
§ TF could not afford to break blockade to gain cotton, as then they would lose grain.
The Decisiveness of Diplomacy
- Diplomatic pressures as South always for foreign intervention, and European rulers wanted to take advantage of American distress.
- First major crisis w/ Britain = Trent affair late 1861
o Union warship stopped British Trent in Cuba, forcibly removed 2 Confed diplomats for Europe.
o British about to prepare to attack from Canada, but slow communications gave both sides to cool and eventually Lincoln would release them.
- 2nd major crisis of Confed commerce-raiders in Britain, notably Alabama
o Not part of British law, yet escaped 1862 to Portuguese Azores, took weapons from secret source
§ Flew Confed flag, led by Confeds, but manned by Britons and never entered Confed port.
§ Britain was chief naval base of Confed.
o Would capture 60+ Yankee vessels
o Soon destroyed by Union cruiser 1864
o HV British-build Confed raiders still an issue.
§ Under pressure from Amer minister Charles Francis Adams, British gradually attempted to be neutral
§ HV still would have 250+ Yankee ships destroyed by Confed commerce-destroyers, build by British.
Foreign Flare-Ups
- 3rd major crisis
o 1863 the Laird rams
§ More dangerous than Alabama, designed to destroy wooden ships of Union
· Designed by Britain once again, where if it had reached South, would have destroyed Northern blockade and TF war w/ Britain would have started.
§ HV Minister Adams warned that “this is war” if rams were released.
· TF last minute London bought the two ships back for Royal Navy, and Confeds only ones disappointed.
§ British would eventually 1871 submit Alabama dispute to arbitration (resolution to a dispute) and 1872 paid America $15 mil for damages caused.
- MW Americans directed anger at northern Canada
o Southern agents plotted to burn Northern cities, and hatred esp. among Irish-Americans and raised tiny “armies” to invade Canada, 1866 – 1870.
§ Canadians condemned Washington gov for violations of neutrality, but admin hampered by many Irish American voters.
- After Civil War, united America and united Canada result.
o British Parliament est. Dominion of Canada in 1867 partly designed to bolster Canadians against possible vengeance of US.
- MW Napoleon III of France took advantage of Amer’s preoccupation
o 1863 set up puppet Austrian archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico.
§ Violations of Monroe Doctrine.
§ Napoleon thought Union would collapse and Amer too weak to enforce Monroe Doctrine.
o HV when shooting stopped 1865, Secretary of State Seward prepared to march south
o TF Napoleon took “French leave” 1867.
President Davis v. President Lincoln
- Confed gov weaknesses.
o Constitution borrowed from Union w/ one defect.
§ Could not logically deny future secession by its states
o TF while Davis attempted to support states’ rights, wanted a strong central gov.
§ HV would still have states’ righters need persuading to serve outside own borders.
§ Georgia often threatened secession.
o Jefferson often at conflict w/ congress and no real popularity.
§ Inclined to defy rather than lead public opinion.
- MW Lincoln had less troubles.
o North had long est. gov, financially stable, fully recog. In world.
o Lincoln proved more superior as he was more flexible though less experienced.
Limitations on Wartime Liberties
- “Honest Abe”, though accused of being a “Simple Susan Tyrant” would not continue once Union was preserved.
o A man suffering from “temporary illness” would not continue on bitter medicines for “the remainder of his healthful life”
- MW Congress not in session when war erupted, so Lincoln proclaimed blockade (action later upheld (supported) by Supreme Court)
o Then increased size of Fed army (something only Congress can do under Constitution, though would later approve)
o Directed secretary of Treasury to advance $2 mil without appropriation or security to three private citizens for military purposes, which was against Constitution.
o Suspended privilege of writ of habeas corpus (privilege of a person going before court to prevent illegal imprisonments) so that anti-Unionists may be summarily arrested.
§ Defied ruling by chief justice that habeas corpus could only be set aside by authorization of Congress.
o “Supervised voting” in the Border States
o Suspension of certain newspapers
- MW Jefferson Davis had to deal with states’ righters
Volunteers and Draftees: North and South
- North relied mostly on volunteers, each state assigned a quota.
o 1963 after volunteering slackened off, Congress passed fed conscription law for first time on nationwide scale in US.
o Rich could hire substitutes by paying $300, these were “three hundred dollar men”
§ For poor it was “three hundred dollars or your life”
- Democratic strongholds in North w/ opposition.
o Angered Irish-Americans which raided and rioted.
- HV 90% + of Union troops were volunteers since social + patriotic pressures strong.
o Also had bounties for volunteering.
o TF “bounty brokers” sprung up, many Irishmen induced to enlist.
§ Also led to many deserters of all classes, w/ similar problem in Confeds.
- South also mainly relied on volunteers.
o HV less populous, and soon 1862 “cradle and grave” (17 to 50) forced to conscript.
o Rich people could also buy special privileges, was “a rich man’s war but a poor man’s fight”
§ Confed conscription agents had to be careful w/ angry sharpshooting mountain whites.
The Economic Stresses of War
- Excise taxes on tobacco + alcohol increased by Congress.
- Income tax levied for first time in nation’s exp, though rates were very low, had millions of dollars.
- Morill Tariff Act 1861 superceding low Tariff of 1857.
o Increased 5-10%, to about moderate level of Walker Tariff of 1846.
§ Soon pushed up due to war.
§ Designed to raise money and provide more protection to manufacturers under new taxes.
- MW issued green-backed paper money, totaling nearly $450 mil at face value.
o Inadequately supported by gold, TF value determined by nation’s credit.
o Greenbacks thus fluctuated w/ fortunes of Union arms.
§ When value of currency went down, indirectly taxed.
- HV borrowing was most money-raiser than greenbacks and tax.
o Federal treasurey $2600 mil through sale of bonds.
- War also gave rise to National Banking System 1863
o Launched partly to stimulate sale of gov bonds, but also to est. standard bank-note currency.
§ Previously w/ rag money by unreliable bankers.
o First sig step toward unified banking since 1836 when BUS was killed by Jackson.
o Continue for 50 years till Federal Reserve System 1913
- For south, Customs duties died due to Union blockade.
o HV large amounts of Confed bonds
o High taxes – 10% on farm produce, HV states’ righters made this ineffective and only 1% of revenue raised this way.
- Attempted to pay blue-backed paper.
o “Runaway inflation” occurred.
o Inflation made it worthless
§ 9000 % inflation rate compared to 80% for Union.
The North’s Economic Boom
- New factories boomed due to tariffs.
o Prospered from “fortunes of war” though suffered somewhat from inflation.
o Rose millionaire class for first time in American history.
§ Marred patriotism.
- Profits before patriotism
o Used poor materials to maximize profit.
- Newly invented laborsaving machinery allowed North to expand economically even though manpower sent to fight.
o Sewing machine > uniforms.
o Military need + innovative machinery = end of custom clothing and rise of “sizes”
- 250,000 mechanical reapers by 1865 dethroned King Cotton via surplus of grain
o Provided profits > North used to buy munitions, supplies from abroad.
- Birth of petroleum plutocracy” due to discovery of petroleum gushers 1859.
- MW westwards 300,000 people moved due to gold and free land under Homestead Act of 1862.
- Only major Northern industry to suffer setback was ocean-carrying trade, due to Alabama and other raiders.
- Civil War = new opportunities for women.
o Women took men’s place via women clerks “gov girls”, industrial employment for clothing.
§ Before Civil War, ¼ industrial worker female, after war, 1/3.
o Many posed as male soldiers, went on spy missions.
o Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, America’s first female physician, organized US Sanitary Commission to assist Union armies.
§ Commission trained nurses
o Clara Barton, Dorothea Dix made nursing = respected profession.
o Sally Tompkins ran Richmond infirmary for wounded Confed soldiers.
o Women organized fundraisers for relief of widows, orphans, disabled soldiers.
A Crushed Cotton Kingdom
- Due to blockade and destruction, previously 30% of nation’s wealth in 1860, then 12% in 1870.
o Before war average per capita (incl slaves) 2/3 of Northerners, after war was 2/5 of Northern level, to remain for rest of century.
- Transport collapsed
o Scarcity of materials led to reusing and desperation.
- HV some spirit w/ women, many stories of self-sacrifice.
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