Chapter 31 The War to End War
- Wilson attempted to not go into war
o Delivered address restating “peace without victory”.
- Germans then declared unrestricted submarine warfare.
o Germans thought distinction b/w combatants and noncombatants a luxury they cannot afford.
o Jerked on string from Sussex Pledge.
- Amer cont to be neutral until Germans undertook “overt” acts.
War by Act of Germany
· Wilson asked Congress to arm Amer merchant ships.
o Filibusters by Midwesterners = continuing isolationism.
· Zimmermann Note angered Amer.
o Proposed secret German-Mexican alliance.
o Tempted by promising Texas, NM, AZ lost in Mex-Amer War.
· Then Russia had revolution, Amer could now fight for democracy.
· Wilson asks for war, though not b/c merchants wanted to protect profits and loans.
o All already thriving, living w/ wartime gov restrictions + heavy tax.
o Previously British harassing Amer commerce while Germans killing them.
Wilson Idealism Enthroned
· Previously many profits due to neutrality.
o Few Midwestern senators/reps against war resolution.
o Landlocked and didn’t know submarine threat.
· Glorified aims
o “War to end war” to make world “safe for democracy”
o For international order.
· Led to a lot of spirit.
Wilson’s 14 Points
· Recognized as moral leader.
· Delivered 14 Points Address to Congress.
· Inspired Allies to holding good promises to minorities.
o Abolish secret treaties
§ Pleased liberals
o Freedom of seas
§ Appealed to Germans and Amer who distrusted Britain.
o Removal of econ barrier between nations
§ Appealing to Germany who feared post-war revenge
o Reduction of armament burdens
§ Appealed to taxpayers
o Adjustment of colonial claims in interests of natives and colonizers.
§ Appealed to anti-imperialists.
o Other points also appealing.
§ Self-determination to oppressed minority groups incl. Poles who was under Germany and Austria-Hungary.
§ Point 14 to create League of Nations.
· Hoped would have collective security.
· Points not liked by leaders of Allied powers who wanted territory and Republicans at home.
Creel Manipulates Minds
· Committee on Public Information created
o Headed by George Creel making it aka Creel Committee.
· Used words and “four minute men” (75,000 of them) to make patriotic pep talks.
· Lots of propaganda, hang-the-kaiser movies, “Remember Belgium” propaganda.
o Most memorable song George Cohan’s “Over There”.
· Led the world to expect too much.
Enforcing Loyalty and Stifling Dissent
· German Americans 8 mil out of 100 mil population.
o Mostly loyal to US.
· Still had rumors of spying, some violence.
· Discrimination against German orchestras, books, food, beer.
· Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 led to more persecution.
o Against Socialists and members of Industrial Workers of the World
o Eugene v. Debs voncited under Espionage Act.
· IWW leader William D. Haywood also convicted.
· Schenck v. United States Supreme Court ruled that freedom of speech could be revoked when such speech presented a “clear and present danger” to the nation (during wartime?)
The Nation’s Factories Go to War
· Minimal preparation for war beforehand
o Council of National Defense to study problems of economic mobilization.
o Shipbuilding program launched.
§ To capture war-disrupted foreign trade to anticipate Amer’s possible entry to war)
o Modest build up of army.
§ But was still 15th in world, only 100,000 regulars.
· Ignorance among biggest of roadblocks
o Didn’t know what country was capable of
o Old ideas incl. minimal gov interference liabilities.
· Some success – Wilson got Bernard Baruch to lead War Industries Board
o Never had many powers, and dissolved after armistic.
· Even in crisis, preference for laissez-faire very strong.
Workers in Wartime
· Driven by War Department’s “work or fight” rule of 1918.
o Threatened any unemployed male w/ being immediately drafted.
o Led to discouraging strikes.
· Mostly tried to treat labor fairly
o National War Labor Board by Taft to solve labor disputes that would impeded war effort.
§ Made high wages, 8 hour day.
§ But did not lead to gov guarantee of right to organize into unions.
· Samuel Gompers and AF of L loyally supported war
o Rewarded as membership doubled after war
o In most heavily unionized sectors such as coal mining, manufacturing, transportation
§ Real wages (adjusting to inflation) up 20% over prewar levels.
· IWW “Wobblies” continued to strike (though part of bad working conditions in country)
· Wage gains also paralleled w/ inflation.
o 6000 strikes throughout war.
o 1919 biggest US Steel strike largest in Amer history.
§ 250,000 steel workers.
§ Brought in African American strikebreakers to keep mills running.
§ Steel strike collapsed, and was setback to union movement for long time.
· Black workers in steel mills part of many blacks who went to North due to war-industry employment.
o Sometimes interracial violence.
o Very violent riot in Chicago.
Suffering until Suffrage
· Women went to factory jobs.
· War had split women’s movement.
o Many were pacifist.
o Voice through National Woman’s party
§ Led by Quaker Alice Paul
· Larger part of suffrage movement by National American Women Suffrage Association.
o Supported war.
o Wilson saw women suffrage as necessary war measure.
o Beginning in New York at state level, soon women suffrage granted through 19th Amendment.
· Despite gains such as through permanent Women’s Bureau after war in Department of Labor to protect women in workplace, most women gave up jobs after war.
· Congress also supported women in traditional role through Sheppard Towner Maternity Act of 1921
o Provided federally financed instruction in maternal and infant healthcare.
· Women movements also through protecting women in workplace and prohibiting child labor.
Forging a War Economy
· Had to feed itself and Allies.
o Herbert C. Hoover chosen to head the Food Administration
o Previously considered hero due to charitable drive to feed Belgium.
§ Preferred to rely on voluntary compliance than on compulsory things.
§ Rejected ration cards which were used in Europe.
o Used propaganda instead.
§ Wheatless Wed, Meatless, Tue.
o Change of names such as “victory gardens” to make them grow own stuff.
· Congress restricted use of food to make alcoholic beverages (i.e. grain) which helped prohibition.
o Many brewers German, increased drive against alcohol.
§ 1919 18th Amendment temporary prohibited all alcohol.
· Farm production increased ¼, food exports X 3 to Allies
· Fuel Administration used similar methods to reduce energy use.
o Liberty Loan drives and Victory Loan campaigns.
o Resulted in $21 billion or 2/3 of current cost of war.
§ Remainder by taxes which were obligatory.
· Pressures used to sell bonds
o Threaten of violence
· Wilson preference for voluntary means of mobilizing econ.
o Occasionally sovereign foreign power.
o Took over nation’s RR in conflicts 1917
§ Seized enemy merchant vessels, promoted drive to more ships.
Making Plowboys into Doughboys
· Originally thought to only donate to Allies w/ loans.
o Total to $10 billion.
· When Allied powers ran out of money, Amer army to go.
· Conscription necessary for large army
o Criticism in Congress.
o Req. registration of all males between ages of 18 and 45.
§ No substitutes could be used.
o Drafting day somewhat effective.
· Army pop to 4 mil.
o First time women to armed forces. 11,000.
o Blacks also served, though in segregated units and in low positions.
§ Hesitated to train blacks, put them to construction.
· Many soldiers to battle without knowing how to fight.
Fighting in France
· Russia’s collapse
o Bolsheviks withdrew from “capitalistic” war.
o Led Germans free from eastern front and to western front.
· Germany’s calculations in war accurate.
o Predicted Americans would lag in entering war, and ineffectively get troops over.
o First soldiers generally sent to Eastern front
America Helps Hammer the “Hun”
· Previously Germany drive with great momentum.
o Yankees coming then was the turn of Germany’s momentum.
· Most significant engagement of Amer troops in European war when French armies had already given up.
o Counteroffensive successful, made Germans withdraw, and they would continue to withdraw. Was the Second Battle of the Marne.
· Amer also demanding separate army and General John J. Pershing assigned part of army.
· Germans slowly began to die because allies deserted them and British blockade making them run out of food supplies.
The 14 Points Disarm Germany
· Germans ready to give up, seeks peace in Wilson’s 14 Points.
o President responded that Kaiser must be overthrown before armistic negotiated.
o Germans more than willing, and overthrew.
· Laid down arms at 11 o clock, 11/11, 1918.
· US main contributions to war were food and munitions, oil and manpower, not victories.
o Prospect of endless US troop reserves that demoralized Germans.
Wilson Steps Down from Olympus
- Wilson with great expectations.
o Wilson won the war and behind him victory and econ resources of mightiest nation.
- Previously “Politics is Adjourned” where political stife kept under surface during war crisis.
o Personally appealed for Demo victory in congressional elections.
o Backfired and voters returned to narrow Republican majority.
§ Diminished as leader in Paris.
- Wilson going to Paris also angered Republicans.
o Neglected to include a single Repub senator in his official party.
§ Logical choice was Henry Cabot Lodge who was high critic of Wilson.
An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris
- Welcomed greatly by the people of Allies, but leaders suspicious.
o Paris Conference largely led by inner clique known as Big Four.
§ Wilson rep richest and freshest great power.
§ Premier Vittorio Orlando of Italy
§ PM David Llyod George of Britain and Premier Georges Clemenceau of France.
- Urgent meeting b/c Europe appeared to be into anarchy.
o Communism from Bolshevist Russia.
- Wilson’s ultimate goal was League of Nations, but first aimed on preventing vengeful treatment of former colonies.
o Compromise b/w imperialism and his idealism.
o Victors to receive possessions as trustees of League.
- Attempted to make League come true when Old World diplomats agreed to League Covenant
o Very idealistic
Hammering Out the Treaty
- Domestic conflicts back at home
o Republican senators w/ Henry Cabot Lodge in lead, condemned League.
§ Also led by senators William Borah and Hiram Johnson
- 39 Repubs (enough to defeat treaty) said that they would not approve League of Nations.
- Powered others in Paris Peace Conference to make Wilson
o French Clemenceau pressed demands for German’s Rhineland and Saar Valley, a violation to self-determination.
§ Then settled for compromise. Where it would remain under LoN then have popular vote determine fate.
o In exchange got Security Treaty which Britain and Amer. Pledged to come to help French in another German invasion.
§ US Senate would later reject due to entangling alliances.
- Wilson attempted to have Fiume seaport go to Yugoslavia.
o Angered Italians
- Another struggle w/ Japan over Shandong and German Islands in the Pacific.
o Japan took islands during war, and then took it under LoN mandate.
o Wilson previously opposed Jap control of Shandong as vio of self-det, but Japan threatened to walk out, so Wilson accepted.
The Peace Treaty that Bred a New War
- Completed Treaty of Versailles given to Germans more than 9 months later.
o Germans thought treaty would be on 14 points, but instead very little of original points fully use.
o Later to be used by Adolf Hitler to justify for actions.
- Allied powers had conflicting aims due to many secret treaties, and Wilson wanted to keep League of Nations alive so relinquished others.
o Now Wilson was a fallen idol. Condemned by disillusioned liberals and frustrated imperialists.
- Treaty managed to liberate millions of minority peoples incl. Poles.
Domestic Parade of Prejudices
- Wilson returns home and faces opposition due to Treaty of Versailles.
o Wanted no part of “entangling alliances”from isolationists.
o Imperialists thought pact was not hard enough.
§ Nation from New York thought it was too harsh, and hyphenated Americans aroused b/c it was not sufficiently favorable to native lands.
Wilson’s Tour and Collapse (1919)
- Strong majority of people still seemed to favor the treaty.
o Early 1919 Senator Lodge had no real hopoe of defeating Treaty of Versailes.
o But effectively used delay to divide public opinion.
§ I.e. reading a lot of foreign grievances out loud.
- Nation also drifted into confusion and apathy
o Wilson decided to go into speechmaking tour.
o Midwest received Wilson not so well as strong Erman influences there.
§ Borah and Johnson who opposed Wilson also addressed same cities.
o In Rock Mountain region and and on Pacific Coast warmly welcomed.
- Then had a stroke and was paralyzed. More than 7 months was paralyzed president in White House.
Defeat Through Deadlock
- Senator Lodge now came up with 14 formal reservations to Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
o Would reserve rights of US under Monroe Doctrine and Constitution and sought to protect Amer. Sovereignty.
o Senate didn’t like Article X of League b/c it morally bound US due to collective security.
§ Wilson opposed and when day came for voting, sent word to all Democrats to vote against treaty w/ Lodge reservations attached.
· Hoped that after, path would clear for league to be accepted w/o Lodge’s attachments on there.
- Was not ratified, and surprising b/c 4/5 of senators appeared to favor treaty, w/ or w/o reservations.
o Public anger = Senate goes a second time.
o Wilson again told Democrats to vote down, and treaty was not ratified.
- Lodge Wilson personal feud, traditionalism, isolationism defeated the treaty.
o He asked for all or nothing and got nothing.
The “Solemn Referendum” of 1920
- Wilson had own solution for deadlock, explaining why he refused to compromise on Lodge’s terms.
o Proposed to settle treaty issue in reelection through appealing to people for “solemn referendum”
- Repubs devised ambiguous plan that appealed to both pro-League and anti-League sentiment in party.
o Nominated Warren G. Harding
- Democrats nominated James M. Cox who strongly supported the League.
o VP was FDR.
o Democratic attempts to make campaign focus on referendum prevented by Harding, who issued contradictory statements on the issue.
§ Repubs, pro and anti League both claimed that Harding’s election would advance their cause.
o Harding suggested that if elected would work for Association of Nations a league, but not THE league.
- NEW WOMEN VOTES
o Many for Cox.
- Cox lost greatly in electoral votes.
o Eugene V. Debs got largest number of votes when in prison.
- Public desire wanted change from idealism.
o Election couldn’t be considered truly referendum as Repub isolationists turned Harding’s victory into ending League.
The Betrayal of Great Expectations
- Repub victory not good for nation as strong international organization would have prevented WWII.
o But LoN undercut from the start because strongest nation refused to join it.
o Allies could also blame US.
- Collapse of Treaty of Versailles partly due to US also.
o Treaty of Versailles w/ 4 other peace treaties through League Covenant didn’t have support of US.
- Senate also rejected the Security Treaty w/ France.
o French feared new Germans so began to bild up powerful military force.
o In response Germans began to rearm illegally.
§ Would inflame following of Hitler later.
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