Chapter 11 The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic
Federalist and Republican Mudslingers
- Federalists under heavy handicaps
o Alien and Sedition Acts invited enemies (most who were Jeffersonians)
o Hamiltonian wing of Federalists could not go to war with Franch and split openly with President Adams.
§ Federalists damaged mostly due to refusal of Adams to give them fight with France
· Feverish war preparations swelled public debt, AR had new stamp tax
· TF war scare left country with all prepared but with nowhere to put it to use feeling
§ Military preparations unnecessary and extravagant
· Seamen for the “new navy” = “John Adams’ Jackasses”
o Adams aka “the Father of the American Navy” ironically
o Hamilton attacked president in privately printed pamphlet, which Jeffersonians got hold of and gleefully published.
- TF Federalists focus on targeting Jefferson
o Jefferson victim of America’s earliest “whispering campaigns”
§ Accused of having fathered numerous children by his own slave women
· One rumor confirmed by DNA testing
o Received attacks from orthodox clergy
§ AR of his successful struggle to separate church and state in native Virginia
§ HV was a liberal and though he believed in God, preachers throughout New England (stronghold of Feds and Congregationalism), attacked his alleged atheism.
The Jeffersonian “Revolution of 1800”
- Jefferson wins presidential election
o Wins by a majority of 73 electoral votes to 65.
o Empire State became Jefferson’s due to Aaron Burr
§ Virginian Burr polled his strength in South and West, particularly in states where universal white manhood suffrage adopted.
o HV Jefferson and Burr deadlock
§ TF voting went to House of Representatives
· Where Federalists controlled it and preferred Burr to hated Jefferson
§ HV deadlock broken when a few Federalists despaired of electing Burr and hoping for moderation from Jefferson, refrained from voting.
o TF John Adams was last Federalist president.
§ Federalist party would eventually disappear completely in days of Andrew Jackson.
- Start of Jeffersonian Age
o Jefferson claims election of 1800 was a “revolution”, the second to that of 1776.
§ HV a switch of some 250 votes in New York would have given election to Adams.
o HV Jefferson meant election represented a return to what he considered to be original spirit of Revolution.
§ Jefferson believed Hamilton + Adams betrayed ideals of 1776 and 1787 French Revolution
§ TF mission to restore republican experiment, check the growth of government power, and halt of decay of virtue under Federalist rule
- Also a revolution in terms of peaceful handover of power
o A remarkable achievement for young nation, esp. after all partisan bitterness.
o Americans could take justifiable pride in vigor of their experiment in democracy.
Responsibility Breeds Moderation
- Jefferson’s inaugural address
o “The will of the majority is in all cases to prevail”
o Speech included classic statements of democratic principles.
§ “Will to be rightful must be reasonable; the minority possess their equal rights, which equal law must protect, and to violate would be oppression.
o “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists” to not alienate Feds.
o Pledged “honest relationship with all nations, entangling alliances with non.” For foreign affairs.
- Jefferson promotes democracy
o Established rule of pell-mell at official dinners
§ Seating without regard to rank
- HV unconventional as president
o Received callers in informal uniform
o Started the precedent of sending messages to Congress to be read by a clerk
§ Would not be broken until Wilson’s presidency 112 years later.
o TF Federalists feared weak personal appearance would mean a speech from monarchy
§ MW Jefferson had weak voice and unimpressive platform presence.
o TF Jefferson forced to reverse many of political principles he vigorously championed
- Two Jeffersons
o One was scholarly private citizen who philosophized in his study
o Other was a harassed public official, and thought that theories in books did not work in practical politics
o AR Virginian was inconsistent.
- Jefferson shows moderation
o Kept with conciliatory inauguration address, and dismissed few public servants for political reasons
o Federalist appointees continued to be in office.
- An able politician
o Especially effective in informal atmosphere of a dinner party
§ Could convince congregational reps through personal charm
o Democratic-Republicans face weak unity
§ Denied power to dispense patronage (monetary support)
§ TF Could not build a loyal political following
§ AR of fading of Federalists, so did glue that held them together
The Jeffersonian Restraint
- Removes the effects of Alien and Sedition Acts
o Pardoned “martyrs” serving sentences under the Act
o Remitted many fines
o Enacted new naturalization law of 1802
§ Act reduced unreasonable requirement of 14 years of residence to previous and more reasonable req. of 5 years.
- Removed the excise tax
o Had bred bureaucrats and was a heavy burden on his farmer followers
o TF repealed it, but cost the federal government about 1 mil dollars a year in urgently needed revenue.
- Able secretary of treasurey Albert Gallatin
o “Watchdog of the Treasurey”
o Agreed with Jefferson that national debt was a bane (deadly poison) than a blessing
§ TF agreed strict economy succeeded in reducing it while balancing budget
o AR maintained all of Hamiltonian framework besides excise tax.
§ Incl. did not tamper w/ Federalist programs for funding for national debt and assuming Revolutionary War debts of states
o Did not attack the Bank of the United States
o Did not repeal mildly protective Federalist tariff.
§ In later years Jeffersonians would recharter a bigger bank and boost the protective tariff to higher levels.
- Jefferson’s moderation paves way for peaceful two0party system
o Showed that change of regime need not be disastrous for defeated group.
The “Dead Clutch” of the Judiciary
- Judiciary Act of 1801 was one of last important laws passed by expiring Federalist Congress
o Created 16 new federal judgeships and other judicial offices
§ AR supposedly had President Adams remain at last day of presidency signing commissions of Federalist “midnight judges”
o TF Federalist-sponsored Judiciary Act aroused bitter resentment
§ “Packing” last minute these lifetime posts with anti-Jeffersonian judges
§ TF Republicans (Jeffersonians) condemned last minute appointees and called Feds as open defiance of people’s will, expressed emphatically at the polls
- AR newly elected Republican Congress repealed Judiciary Act of 1801
o TF Jefferson removed sixteen benches from recently seated “midnight judges”
- MW begins to prepare to attack Chief Justice John Marshall
o John Adams appointed as fourth choice, but Chief Justice
§ A cousin of Thomas Jefferson, but dominated Supreme Court with powerful intellect
§ Was a life-long Federalist
· Served at Valley Forge during Revolution and convinced of drawbacks of weak central authority.
· TF committed to strengthening central authority
- AR Marshall served 30 days under a Federalist administration, and 34 years under Jefferson and other presidents, but Marshall continued handing down Federalist decisions.
- MW conflict with Marbury, one of the “midnight judges” of 1801
o Marbury was one of named justices of the peace for the District of Columbia.
o HV when Madison cut his salary by new secretary of state James Madison, he sued James Madison.
§ MW Marshall knew Jeffersonian rivals dominating executive branch would not come easily to terms, TF dismissed Marbury’s suit to avoid a direct political showdown.
§ HV Marshall ruled that the part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 Marbury tried to base his appeal on was unconstitutional.
· Where the Act had attempted to assign the Supreme Court powers that the Constitution had not foreseen
· TF through this, Marshall greatly magnified the authority of the Court.
§ B/c until Marbury v. Madison (1803), controversy had clouded question of who had final authority to determine meaning of Constitution.
· Jefferson + Kentucky resolutions (1798) tried to allot that right to individual states.
· HV now Marshall developed contrary principle of “judicial review”
o The idea that Supreme Court alone had last word on question of constitutionality.
- Jefferson attempts to take revenge
o Urged impeachment of arrogant Supreme Court justice Samuel Chase
§ 1804 impeachment charges against Chase were voted by House and then passed question of guilt or innocence onto Senate
· Indictment of House based on “high crimes and misdemeanors”
o HV evidence clearly suggests Chase had no “high crimes”
§ TF impeachment failed to pass from Senate
o TF from then on no really serious attempt has been made to reshape Supreme Court via impeachment.
§ Emphasized independence of judiciary and separation of powers.
Jefferson, a Reluctant Warrior
- Reduces the power of the military
o One of first actions as president
o Down to a mere police force of 2500 officers
§ Critics called “penny-pinching”, but reasons were more for republican ideals.
· B/c Jefferson hoped for no entangling alliances w/ Europe and would set an example of the world and winning friends through “peaceful coercion”.
§ MW Jeffersonians feared big army was invitation to dictatorship
· Navy was less feared as they could not march inland.
· HV farm-loving Jeffersonians saw little point in building a fleet that would also be very costly and possibly starting wars.
- Threats from Pirates
o From the North African Barbary States
§ Infamous for national industry of blackmailing and plundering merchant ships that went into Mediterranean
§ Previously Federalist administrations forced to buy protection.
· At time of XYZ affair 1798, Americans shouted “millions for defense but not one cent for tribute” when 26 barrels of blackmail dollars being shipped to piratical Algiers.
o TF showdown 1801
§ Pasha of Tripoli was dissatisfied with share of protection money
§ TF informally declared war on US by cutting down flagstaff of American consulate.
· TF Jefferson, the pacifist, sent infant navy to Triploi.
· AR of four years of intermittent (stopping and ceasing for a time) fighting, Jefferson succeeded in treaty of peace from Triplo 1805
o Secured only via bargain price of $60,000 – sum representing ransom payments for captured Americans.
- Gunboats after the Tripolitan War
o Small gunboats brought some success to navy, and fascinated Jefferson.
o AR advocated large number of little costal craft or “Jeffs”
§ Believed these vessels would prove valuable in guarding American shores and, since they are fast but frail, won’t start wars overseas.
o TF about 200 gunboats constructed democratically in small shipyards (increasing his support)
The Louisiana Godsend
- America signs secret pact with France 1800
o Napoleon Bonaparte convinced king of Spain to cede to France for “attractive considerations”, the immense trans-Mississippi region of Louisiana, incl. New Orleans.
- Rumors of transfer partially confirmed in 1802
o Spaniards at New Orleans withdrew the right of deposit as secured in Pinckney’s Treaty 1795
§ AR American pioneers talked of descending upon New Orleans with rifles
· Would have resulted in war with both Spaniards and France.
§ TF Jeffersons in predicament.
· Louisiana was in weakening grip of Spain and had no real threat
· HV Louisiana in iron first of Napoleon foreshadowed conflict
o MW US was not strong enough to fight him, TF would have to seek allies, contrary to deepening anti-alliance policy.
o TF Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris to join forces with regular minister there, Robert Livingston.
§ Two envoys instructed to buy New Orleans and as much land east as they could get for a max of $10 million.
· Ordered that should proposals fail and situation began critical, negotiations were to be opened w/ Britain for alliance.
· TF was prepared to take “necessary” measures to secure New Orleans
- Napoleon decided to sell all of Louisiana and abandon his dream of New World Empire due to two developments
o First failed to reconquer sugar-rich island of Santo Dimingo
§ Was what Louisiana was to serve as source of foodstuffs.
§ After first line of stubborn defense by Toussaint L’Ouverture and ex-slaves broken, yellow fever killed thousands of French troops.
§ “Damn sugar, damn coffee, damn colonies” – Napoleon
o Second Napoleon was about to end the 20 month lull (peace, quiet) with deadly conflict with Britain.
§ Feared that since British controlled seas, would be forced to make them a gift of Louisiana.
· TF prevented America teaming up with Britain to protect the area.
· Also hoped that US would be strengthened by Louisiana and would one day be strong enough to thwart ambitions of British.
- MW American minister Robert Livingston negotiating in Paris for a window on the Gulf of Mexico in New Orleans.
o Monroe had yet to arrive
o MW French foreign minister asked him how much he would give for all of Louisiana
§ AR 1803 signed at giving Louisiana to US for $15 mil.
- America receives news
o Jefferson startled
§ Authorized envoys to offer no more than $10 mil for New Orleans and land as much east in the Floridas
§ Instead signed 3 treaties that traded $15 mil for New Orleans plus land to the west.
o The two Jeffersons conflict
§ Nowhere in the Constitution was the president authorized to negotiate treaties w/ huge land into nation w/ thousands of Indians.
§ MW privately thought to propose constitutional amendment
· HV friends advised that Napoleon would see that thought was action and would withdraw the treaty
· TF submitted to treaties while admitting his purchase was unconstitutional.
§ MW Senators eagerly approved due to land-hungry Americans, esp 828,000 square miles at about 3 cents an acre.
Louisiana in the Long View
- Gains of purchasing Louisiana
o Avoided possible conflict with France and consequent entangling w/ England
o Secured in one broad stroke the entire western half of richest river valley in world
o Established a precedent of acquisition of foreign territory and peoples by purchase
- Jefferson sends Meriwether Lewis and William Clark
o Lewis personal secretary of Jefferson while Clark a young army officer
o Sent to explore northern part of Louisiana Purchase
§ Aided by Shoshoni Sacajawea and ascended the “Great Muddy” (Missouri River) from St. Louis, went through Rockies and descended Columbia River to the Pacific Coast
o 2 ½ years expedition yielded rich harvest of scientific observations, knowledge of Indians in the region, and many wilderness adventure stories.
§ Great Plains told of immense herds of animals.
§ MW Lewis nearly escaped death from conflict with Blackfoot Indians.
· AR of killing another Blackfoot, one of expedition’s “peace and friendship” medals was warning to other Indians and Lewis and crew quickly went out of Marias country to rejoin main party of Missouri.
o MW crew demonstrated viability (possibility of surviving through) of overland trail to Pacific.
§ Thousands of missionaries, fur-traders, and pioneering settlers would go through path to Oregon Country
· MW explorers Zebulon Pike trekked to headwaters of Mississippi in 1805 – 1806
o Would also explore southern portion of Louisiana territory and would sight the Colorado peak that bears his name.
The Aaron Burr Conspiracies
- The short run defects of the Louisiana purchase
o Feeble reach of government raised fears of secession and foreign intrigue
- Aaron Burr, Jefferson’s first-term vice president justified such fears.
o Dropped from cabinet in Jefferson’s second term and joined a group of Federalist extremists to plot secession of New England and New York.
§ HV Hamilton, though no friend of Jefferson, exposed and foiled the conspiracy.
§ TF Burr challenged Hamilton to duel
· Hamilton felt honor was at stake, and met Burr’s challenge but refused to fire, TF Burr killed Hamilton
- MW Aaron Burr attempts to make secessions
o Struck an allegiance w/ James Wilkinson, military governor of Louisiana Territory and sometimes a secret agent in pay of Spanish crown.
§ Though still unclear, Burr and Wilkinson apparently planned to separate western part of US from East and expand their new confed w/ invasions of Spanish-controlled Mexico + Florida.
· TF in 1806 Burr + 60 followers floated in flatboats down Mississippi to meet Wilkinson’s army, but when general learned that Jefferson knew of plot, betrayed Burr and fled to New Orleans.
o Burr acquitted after tried for treason
§ John Marshall under strict interpretation of Constitution, insisted that guilty verdict required proof of acts of treason, not merely treasonous intensions.
§ TF Burr fled to Europe and urged Napoleon to make peace w/ Birain and launch a joint invasion of America.
· Demonstrated that US has yet to govern large land effectively.
America: A Nutcrackered Neutral
- Jefferson triumphantly reelected in 1804 w/ 162 electoral votes to 14 votes for Federalist opponent.
- MW Napoleon provoked renewal of war w/ Britain
o Previously America had enjoyed commercial benefits from trade w/ Britain and France,
o HV at Battle of Trafalgar Lord Nelson smashed French and Spanish fleets off coast of Spain and ensured British supremacy on seas
o MW Battle of Austerlitz in Austria (Battle of the Three Emperors) Napoleon crushed Austrian and Russian armies and assumed mastery of land.
- Americans in a deadlock.
o London in 1806 issued Orders of Council which closed European ports under French control to foreign shipping, incl. American, unless vessels first stopped at a British port.
o Napoleon ordered seizure of all merchant ships, incl. American, that entered British ports.
o TF no way to trade w/ either nation w/o facing guns.
§ MW seizure of American ships was seizure of Americans.
§ MW Imppressment (forcible enlistment of soldiers) was crude form of conscription that British used over 400 years.
· Some 6000 US citizens forcibly enlisted by “piratical man-stealers” of Britain from 1808 to 1811 alone.
o Many died or were killed.
o British determination extravagant in 1807
§ British captain bluntly demanded surrender of four alleged deserters.
· London never claimed right to seize sailors from a foreign warship, TF American commander who was also totally unprepared to fight, refused the request.
· AR British warship fired and killed 3 Americans and wounded 18 at Chesapeake.
§ AR British was clearly wrong and London Foreign Office admitted.
§ HV national wrath went up back at home
The Hated Embargo
- America could not afford war as navy was weak due to Jefferson’s anti-navalism, and army was even weaker.
- MW Europeans depended heavily on US for raw materials and foodstuffs.
o TF Jefferson passed Embargo Act in late 1807.
§ Forbade export of all goods from US, whether in American or in foreign ships.
§ Was Jefferson’s idea of “peaceful coercion”
- Immediate effects were that American economy staggered.
o Forests of dead masts filled New England’s once-bustling harbors. Docks were deserted (except for illegal trade)
§ Soup kitchens cared for some of the hungry unemployed.
o AR Jeffersonian Republicans probably hurt New England commerce more than Britain and France together were doing.
o MW southern farmers and western farmers alarmed by mounting piles of unexportable cotton, grain, and tobacco.
- TF enormous illicit trade in 1808
o Esp. along the Canadian border
§ Bands of armed Americans overpowered federal agents.
o HV Jefferson only induced Congress to enforce legislation
§ Made Jefferson viewed as a tyrant
§ MW embargo even had effect of reviving Federalist party
· Leaders attempted to null the embargo VIA “Virginia lordlings” in Washington
· 1804 Federalists polled 14/176, but in 1808 the embargo year, the figure rose to 47/175.
§ MW New England talked of secession.
o AR anger from the public, Congress repealed the embargo on March 1, 1809, 3 days before Jefferson’s retirement.
§ Via Non-Intercourse Act which formally reopened trade w/ all nations of world but Britain and France.
· Would continue to be policy of Jeffersonians from 1809 – 1812 until when nation finally started war.
- Reasons of failures of the embargo
o Collapsed after 15 months.
§ Underestimated the determination of British
§ Overestimated dependence of both belligerents on America’s trade
· Bumper grain crops blessed British and revolutionary Latin American republics threw open ports for compensating commerce.
· Napoleon had most of Europe under his control and could afford w/o American trade.
· MW French continued to seize American ships and steal their cargoes while emperor mocked the US
o HV also miscalculated unpopularity of weapon and the difficulty of enforcing it.
o Was not continued long enough or tightly enough for desired results.
§ A leaky embargo was more costly than none at all.
- HV New England, w/ shipping tied up, reopened old factories and started new ones.
o Real foundations of modern America’s industry laid behind embargo, followed by nonintercourse and War of 1812
Madison’s Gamble
- Jefferson happy to escape the “splendid misery” and MW strongly favored nominaton and election of Madison as his successor.
- When Madison took oath 1809, conflict in Europe in climax
o Small, light of weight, bald, and weak of voice.
o Crippled by factions in his party and cabinet.
o AR was unable to dominate Congress as Jefferson had done
§ TF often found himself carrying out foreign policies not of his own making.
- Non-Intercourse Act of 1809
o Due to expire 1810
o HV to Madison’s dismay, Congress dismantled embargo completely w/ Macon’s Bill No. 2.
o Was what Congress hoped to be an attractive lure.
o If either Britain or France repealed its commercial restrictions, America would restore its embargo against the nonrepealing nation.
§ Was shameful as it admitted that the US could not survive w/o one of belligerents as commercial ally.
o MW Napoleon saw a change
§ 1806 Britain justified its Orders in Council as retaliation for Napoleon’s actions, TF implied that trade restrictions would be lifted if French decrees disappeared.
§ TF French in 1810 told British that French decrees might be repealed if Britain also lifted its Orders in Council.
· HV Napoleon had no intention of permitting unrestricted trade b/w America and Britain
o Had hoped to make US resume its embargo against Britain when he wouldn’t have to raise a finger.
§ Madison knew better than to trust Napoleon, but gambled that threat of seeing US trade exclusively w/ France would lead British to repeal their restrictions, and vice versa.
§ TF terms of Macon’s Bill gave British 3 months to live up to implied promise.
· HV London did not need to bargain, as they were in firm control of seas.
· Decided that they could trade exclusively w/ British or w/ nobody at all.
o AR Madison’s gamble failed, but president could only reestablish embargo against Britain alone, meaning the end of American neutrality.
Tecumseh and the Prophet
- Twelfth Congress
o Met in late 1811
o Recent elections had removed many of “submission men” and replaced them w/ young hotheads from South and West.
§ “War hawks” were eager for war.
§ Also yearned to wipe out renewed Indian threat to pioneer settlers going into trans-Allegheny wilderness.
· Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, aka to non-Indians as “the Prophet”, concluded that it was time to battle.
o Began to create a confed of all tribes east of Mississippi and inspired vibrant movement of Indian unity and cultural renewal.
o Urged supporters never to cede land to whites unless all Indians agreed.
§ MW white frontiersman, war-hawk spokesmen convinced that British “scalp buyers” in Canada nourishing the Indians’ growing strength.
§ TF fall of 1811 William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana territory, gathered army and advanced to Tecumseh’s HQ in present day Indiana.
· Tecumseh absent, but Prophet attacked Harrison’s army foolishly, in Tecumseh’s eyes, w/ a small force of Shawnees.
o AR of Battle of Tippecanoe Harrison a hero.
§ AR also discredited the Prophet and drove Tecumseh into alliance w/ British.
· When America’s war w/ Britain came, Tecumseh fought fiercely for British until death in 1813 Battle of Thames.
o With his death also perished dream of Indian confed.
Mr. Madison’s War
- War was inevitable
o British armed hostile Indians, as well as a lot of war hawks in his own party.
§ Incl. ppl such as Representative Felix Grundy of Tennessee, three of whose brothers killed in conflicts w/ Indians.
§ TF “On to Canada, on to Canada” to wipe out Indians.
· MW Southern expansionists looked towards Florida, then weakly held by Britain’s ally Spain.
o MW Madison wanted to restore confidence in republican experiment
§ Noble vision of neutrality brought them international derision and international strife.
§ TF believed in vigorous assertion of American rights and nationhood.
- Madison asked Congress to declare war on June 1, 1812, would agree 2 weeks later.
o Vote in house 79 – 49, while 19 – 13 in Senate
§ Deep divisions over wisdom of fighting.
§ Split was both sectional and partisan
· Support for war from South and West, but also from Republicans in populous middle states (PA, VA)
· MW Feds in N + W opposed conflict, and stronghold in New England
- Reasons for opposition
o Feds in NE sympathized w/ Britain and resented Republicans’ sympathy with Napoleon.
o Federalists opposed acquisition of Canada, which would only add more agrarian states from the NW.
§ Would increase voting strength of Jeffersonian Republicans.
o AR New England feds led them to treason/near-treason.
§ New England gold holders probably lent more to British Exchequer than to federal Treasurey
§ Feds sent huge quantities of foodstuffs to Canada
· Helped British invade NY
§ NY governors refused to permit own militias to serve outside own states.
§ AR America had to fight Old England and New England.
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