Chapter 12 The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism
- War of 1812 one of America’s worst fought wars
o Disunity – no national anger as in America after 1807 Chesapeake outrage
o Unimppressive military outcome and even less decisive negotiated peace
- HV Americans came out of war w/ renewed sense of nationhood.
On to Canada over Land and Lakes
- Army was weak prior to War of 1812
o Ill-trained, ill-disciplined, widely scattered.
- Poorly conceived strategy against Canada
o Defeat of Montreal would have left everything to west dead
o HV focused instead on a 3-pronged attack quickly defeated after they crossed border
- Energy from the British and Canadians
o Captured American fort which commanded upper Great Lakes and Indian inhabited area to outh and west.
o Excellent defensive operations by British general Isaac Brock.
- America has some Naval victories
o American craft on the whole more skillful, better gunners
§ Were not press-gang crews who wanted to avenge numerous indignities.
o American frigates, notably the Constitution had thicker sides, heavier firepower, and larger crews
§ 1 of 6 was a free black.
- Victory in the Great Lakes by Oliver Perry
o Captured British fleet in Lake Erie
§ General Harrison TF had to retreat redcoats, but were overtaken in Battle of Thames by General Harrison.
- No more support from the French
o Napoleon was destroyed in mid 1814
§ Exiled to Elba, Mediterranean isle.
o TF British had thousands of victories
- British fails to capture vital New York
o In absence of roads, invader forced to take supplies over Lake Champlain.
§ Weaker American fleet by Macdonough managed to defeat British
o TF British army forced to retreat and saved upper New York from conquest, New England from disaffection, and Union from possible dissolution.
§ Also impacted concurrent negotiations.
Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended
- Burning of Washington.
o Advanced rapidly on Washington, 6000 defending militia fled - “Bladenburg Races”
o Invaders entered capital and set fire to most public buildings, Capitol and White House.
- MW Americans defended Baltimore.
o Francis Scott Key inspired to write “The Star-Spangled Banner”
§ Quickly gained popularity.
- American victory at Battle of New Orleans
o Andrew Jackson placed in command
§ Just came from crushing SW Indians in Battle of Horshoe Bend.
§ Militiamen included states around entire Mississippi Valley
- Included two Louisiana regiments of free black volunteers.
o British makes mistake of launching frontal assault
o AR Most devastating defeat of war, lost over 2000, killed and wounded in half hour.
§ Compared to some 70 for Americans.
o News struck “like a clap of thunder”
- EVTH treaty was signed two weeks before battle.
o HV US had fought for honor and material gain.
o TF nationalism and confidence.
- Economy crippled.
o Royal Navy, angered, had naval blockade along America’s coast.
§ Landed raiding parties
o AR economic life and fishing crippled, no custom revenues
o A bankrupt Treasurey.
The Treaty of Ghent
- Tsar Alexander I proposed mediation b/w belligerents
o Did not want British ally to lose strength in America.
- Brought 5 American peacemeakers to Belgian city of Ghent in 1814
o Included John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams.
- After military successes, British demanded a neutralized Indian state in Great Lakes, control of the lakes and a substantial part of conquered Maine.
o America rejected, TF deadlock.
- After American victories and increasing war-weariness in Britain, British compromised.
o Was preoccupied by redrafting Napoleon’s map of Europe at Congress of Vienna and fearful of still-dangerous France.
- Treaty of Ghent 1814
o An armistice where both sides agreed to stop fighting
o No mention of what America had fought against:
§ Indian menace, search and seizer
§ Orders in Council
§ Impressments and confiscations of soldiers
o Proof that war was in virtual draw, like the negotiations.
- Relived Americans boasted “Not One Inch of Territory Ceded or Lost”
o Contrasted with “On to Canada” on the start of war
Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention
- New England prospered from illicit trade w/ enemy in Canada
o British didn’t blockade until 1814.
- HV opposition to war by Federalists continued
- New England extremists talk of secession.
o “Blue Light” Feds supposedly flashed lanterns to alert attempted escape of Americans to British blockaders.
- Hartford Convention.
o MA called for convention at Hartford when capture of New Orleans seemed imminent.
§ MA, CT, RI full delegations, NH, VT partial.
o Discussed in secrecy for 3 weeks to discuss grievances and seek redress.
o Convention was overall moderate despite a little of radical talk.
§ Demanded financial assistance from DC to compensate for lost trade
§ Proposed constitutional amendments requiring 2/3 vote in Congress before an embargo could be imposed, new states admitted or war declared.
o Reflected Fed fears that New England was falling and South, West rising
§ Sought to abolish 3/5 clause, to limit president term to 1, prohibit election of two successive presidents from same state.
· Last aimed at “Virginia Dynasty” since by 1814 b/c a Virginian had been president for 4/24 years.
- Hartford Conventions brought about death of Federalists
o When demands arrived at DC, news of New Orleans and Ghent received.
- TF was in disunity and in 1816 nominated last presidential candidate, but was defeated by another Virginian James Monroe
o MW more talk of disunity
§ Where Jeffersonian embargo and near-defeat of war at first were most damaging acts of nullification prior to Civil War.
The Second War for American Independence.
- War of 1812 was a small war, and globally unimportant
- HV showed national honor
o Showed it would resist grievous wrongs.
§ Where Perry and Macdonough were most effective negotiators w/ strong broadside ships.
o TF in military and diplomatic sense, America gained a lot.
- Sectionalism among the states.
o Most conspicuous (easily noticed) casualty of war was Federalist Party
- War heroes Jackson and William Harrison emerge.
o Both to become president.
- Indians forced to comply to treaties, abandoned by British friends in Ghent
o Gave up vast areas north of Ohio.
- Industries stimulated
o Manufacturing prospered behind British blockade.
o Industries were stimulated by less dependence on Europe’s industries.
- Canadian nationalism and border problems
o Felt betrayed by Treaty of Ghent.
§ Failed to secure Indian buffer state or Great Lakes.
o TF expected Yankees to return
§ Had a floating arms race on the Great Lakes.
- HV Border problem resolved
o Soon 1817 Rush-Bagot agreement severely limited naval armament on lakes.
§ Better relations ended last foritifcations where US and Canada comes to share world’s longest unfortified boundary – 5527 miles.
- Old World returns to conservatism, illiberalism and reaction.
§ W/ Napoleon’s final defeat in Waterloo
o HV America unaffected by this.
Nascent Nationalism
- Heightened nationalism
§ Defined the spirit of national consciousness or national oneness.
o Did not fight as one nation, but emerged as one.
- Shown through literature.
o Washington Irving, James Cooper 1820s known as “nation’s first writers”
§ Used American scenes and themes.
o Texts now to be written by Americans for Americans.
o North American Review began 1815 after New Orleans, began world of magazines.
- Financial unity shown in BUS
o A revived BUS was voted by Congress in 1816
o Washington repaired, more than a smelly swamp
- Army expanded to 10,000 men.
- Navy more powerful.
o Admin’ed thorough beating of piratical North Africa.
§ Stephen Decatur, naval hero of War of 1812, Barbary Coast expeditions makes famous toast “Our country! In her intercourse with foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong!”
“The American System”
- Competitors from the British
o British factories had huge supply and sold to Americans in low prices.
o AR infant American factories suffered.
- Congress, to out-Federalist the Feds, pass Tariff of 1816 > NATIONALISM
o First tariff in American history instituted for protection, not revenue.
o 20-25% on dutiable imports
§ Were not high enough to provide adequate safeguards, but bold beginning.
§ Stimulated appetites for the protected for more protection.
- Henry Clay suggested 1824 “the American System”
§ Driven by nationalism from war hawk days
o Began w/ strong banking system providing easy and abundant credit.
o Advocated protective tariff
o 3rd component – network of roads and canals, esp in growing Ohio Valley
§ Would be supported by funds from tariff.
o Would flow foodstuffs from South to West, North and East.
§ In exchange manufactured goods would flow down.
o NATIONALISM > would knit country together econ, politically.
- Henry Clay receives public support
o Failed invasion of Canada due to failing roads or lack of roads.
o West supported most due to road-poor West.
- President Madison vetoes Congress to distribute $1.5 mil for internal improvements
§ Vetoed as unconstitutional
o TF states forced to construct their own, incl. Erie Canal
§ Completed by NY in 1825
- Jeffersonians usually favored loose constructionism, but supported idea of not allowing direct fed support of internal construction
o Would drain away population and create competing states far West.
The So-Called Era of Good Feelings
- James Monroe nominated for presidency 1816 by Republicans.
o Continued Virginia Dynasty of Washington, Jefferson and Madison.
§ Federalist candidate crushed by 183 electoral votes to 34.
§ AR left gov to one-party rule.
o Represented both Founding Fathers and new age of nationalism.
§ Least distinguished of first eight presidents.
o HV was experienced and right for a sober admin, not heroic one.
- James Monroe inspects military defenses 1817
o Further cements NATIONALISM
o Went northward deep into New England, west to Detroit.
§ Federalist New England, “the enemy’s country” received heartwarming welcome.
o Newspaper announced that an “Era of Good Feelings” had been ushered in”
§ Happy phrase to be used commonly to describe admin of Monroe.
- HV issues of tariff, the bank, internal improvements, sale of public lands contested
o Sectionalism and conflict over slavery beginning to rise
The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times
- First national financial panic since Washington took place.
o Brought deflation, depression, bankruptcies, and overcrowded debtors’ prisons
- Caused by overspeculation of frontier lands.
o BUS, esp through western branches, deeply involved in this gamble.
- AR BUS forced speculative “wildcat” western banks to foreclose mortgages on Western farms.
§ Was technically legal
o Politically unwise, as lost support of western debtors.
- MW poorer classes had their troubles, to create seed of Jacksonian democracy.
§ Conflict of inhumanity of debtors’ prisons arose.
o AR remedial legislation in increasing # of states.
Growing Pains of the West
- B/w 1791 – 1819, 9 frontier states joined original 13.
o To preserve N + S balance, most commonwealths admitted alternately, free or slave
- Westward push fueled by hunger for land
§ Was a continuation of westwards movement.
§ “Ohio fever”, siren song of cheap land
o Land exhaustion from tobacco states.
o Speculators accepted small down payments
§ Easier to buy land
o Econ distress during embargo years made many turn west
o Crushing of Indians in NW and S by Generals Harrison + Jackson opened up land
o Building of highways improved land routes.
§ Cumberland Road, begun in 1811, ran from MD to IL
· Use of first steamboat on Western waters 1811 opened era of upstream nav.
- HV Western territories still weak
o Not potent to voice itself, forced to ally w/ other sections.
o Land Act of 1820 partially achieved goal of cheap acreage.
§ Authorized buyers to purchase 80 acres at min of $1.25 in cash
o Slowly got cheap transportation
§ Despite presidential veto of international construction, and eastern protests
o Demanded cheap money issued by it’s own “wildcat” banks
Slavery and Sectional Balance
- Issue of slavery highlighted when Missouri asked Congress for admittance as slave state
o HV House of Reps passed Tallmadge amendment
§ No more slaves to be brought in Missouri, and to have gradual emancipation of slave’s children.
o AR slave-holding southerners, depression-affected pioneers who favored unhampered Western expansion complained
§ Feds also joined the anger, eager to use the issue to break Virginia dynasty.
- Southerners saw Tallmadge amendment as threat to sectional balance.
o N + S was neck and neck in wealth and population
o HV North soon wealthier, more settled, and had majority in House of Reps.
§ In Senate, South managed to obtain equality
§ Would eventually defeat amendment in Senate
o Missouri also first state entirely west of MI River created out of LA Purchase
§ Where Tallmadge might set damaging precedent for rest of the area’s states
§ Feared Congress would work to abolish slavery in rest of Southern states
o MW Small but growing anti-slavery group in North.
The Uneasy Missouri Compromise
- Henry Clay leads compromise, breaking deadlock in 1820
o Congress agreed to admit MO as slave state.
o MW Maine, previously part of MA, to be a separate state.
§ AR 12 v. 12 balance and remained for 15 years.
o MW all future bondage prohibited in LA Purchase north of MO’s southern border
- South gains, North gains
o South gets unrestricted slavery in MO.
o North has definite no slavery north of MO border, was a large territory.
§ Northern land not suitable for slave ownership anyways.
- MO Compromise lasted 34 years, neither was displeased.
o Did not solve issue of slavery
o As TJ predicted, would “burst on us as a tornado”
- AR both Panic of 1819 and MO Compromise dampened Era of Good Feelings.
o HV Monroe very popular and Federalist opposition so weak that in election 1820, received all electoral votes but one.
§ Monroe to be only president reelected after a term w/ major financial panic
John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism
- Marshall bolsters power of fed at expense of states via McCulloch v. Maryland 1819
o MD attempted to destroy branch of Bank of US by imposing tax on notes
§ HV Marshall declared BUS constitutional through Hamiltonian doctrine of implied powers
§ MW denied right of MD to tax bank as he affirmed that “the power to tax involves the power to destroy” and “that a power to create implies a power to preserve”
o AR Marshall asserts doctrine of “loose construction”
§ Said Constitution was from consent of people and to adapt to various crisis of human affairs. Then declared that “all plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional” > outlines loose construction.
- Marshall reasserts federal powers via Cohens v. Virginia 1821, where Supreme Court made final decision in state supreme court case.
- Gibbons v. Ogden 1824
o NY wanted to grant monopoly of waterborne commerce b/w NY and NJ
o Marshall reminded that congress alone to control interstate commerce.
§ AR another victory for federal government powers.
Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses
- Fletcher v. Peck (1810) prevented state laws from “impairing contracts”
o Georgia legislature granted acres of MS, angry public made legislature cancel it.
o Protected property rights against popular pressures.
§ One of earliest cases protecting rights of Supreme Court to invalidate state laws conflicting w/ Constitution.
- Dartmouth College v. Woodward
o NH state legislature saw fit to change charter granted to Dartmouth, by George III
o Daniel Webster, famous alumni, appealed case.
o Marshall ruled that original charter must stand > was a contract.
o AR safeguarded business enterprise from domination by states.
§ HV created precedent for chartered corporations to escape public control
- Daniel Webster prominent Senator and Federalist
o Often presented Federalist and nationalist philosophy before supreme bench and the Senate, challenging states’ rights.
- MW Marshall helped create stable, nationally uniform environ for business
o Checked excesses of state legislature.
o Opposed the age where America veered towards stronger popular control.
Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida
- Treaty of 1818 of Monroe administration
o Permitted US to share coveted (longed for) Newfoundland fisheries w/ Canada
o Fixed vague N limits of LA, from Rockies to Lake of the Woods in MN (see map)
o Provided for 10 year joint occupation of Oregon Country.
- America claimed Western Spanish in 1812 under legislation
o HV majority still under Spanish rule.
- HV after revolutions broke out in S. America, Spain forced to remove troops from Florida and fight rebels.
o TF Jackson, on pretext of hostile Indians, slaves in Florida, entered to punish them.
§ HV 1818 Jackson hanged 2 Indian chiefs, 2 British subjects for helping tribes
§ MW captured 2 Spanish posts
§ TF Monroe consulted Cabinet, John Quincy Adams the lone wolf who demanded huge concessions from Spanish > rest to discipline Jackson
- AR Florida Purchase Treaty 1819
o Spanish ceded Florida and vague claims to Oregon
o America ceded vague claims to Texas, to become part of indep Mexico.
Menace of Monarchy in America
- Old World against democracy
o Stimulated after Napoleonic disaster and democratic tendencies from French revolution
o AR quelled rebellion in Italy in 1821 and Spain 1823.
§ Rumors of Old World to quell rebellions in Spanish colonies overseas
- AR America cheered for democratic revolutions
o Feared if Old World intervened w/ New World republicanism, would be damaged
- MW tsar of Russia pushed down, many already est. trading posts as far south as San Francisco Bay.
o AR US feared Russians would cut US off from Cali and Pacific.
- MW British not eager to crush liberties of Spanish Americans
o British + US profited from monopoly-bound ports by the revolutionists.
Monroe and his Doctrine
- 1823 George Canning British foreign secretary proposed British alliance w/ US to renounce any interest in acquiring Latin American territory and warn European monarchs to stop attacking.
o Adams suspicious of why British would want rather weak American support.
o Also feared that British feared US would seize Spanish territories in Cuba and jeopardize Britain’s possessions.
§ Would make the US morally tied.
o AR Adams concluded proposal would hamper American expansion and was unnecessary.
§ Suspected correctly that European powers had not hatched any definite plans for invading Americas, where British would prevent invasion of Americas
o TF was safe for US to have a diplomatic coup, under British “protection”
- Monroe Doctrine 1823
§ Nationalistic Adams won Monroe over
o Warned European powers of 1) noncolonization and 2) nonintervention.
§ Warned Russia that colonization of Americas was over
§ Warned against foreign intervention – US would not intervene in war w/ Greeks against Turks for independence.
Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised
- European powers angered by Monroe’s high-flown pronouncement.
o HV could not do anything w/ British.
- MW Newborn republics learned of US’s interests for self and secondary interest to protect neighbors.
o Few educated knew that British was true obstacle b/w them and Europe
- Had no contemporary significance
o Not until 1845 when Polk revived it and became important.
- MW tsar had Russo-American Treaty of 1824 before Monroe’s Doctrine.
o Southern limits to be at south of Alaska (see map)
- Monroe Doctrine, a Self-Defense Doctrine
o Concerned with security of own country.
o An expression of post 1812 nationalism and deepened isolationism.
o Was a mere personalized statement, where Monroe’s successors have ignored, revived, distorted or expanded to this original version.
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