Chapter 13 The Rise of a Mass Democracy
· So called Era of Good Feelings was never entirely tranquil.
o Shattered due to panic of 1819 and MO Compromise of 1820.
o Economic distress and slavery raised political stakes in 1820s and 1830s.
· AR new political parties emerged, new styles of campaigning.
o By 1840, style would be starkly different to that of 1824.
o Due to deference, apathy in Era of Good Feelings which yielded strong political parties of Jacksonian Era.
· 1828 the Democrats captured White House.
o By 1830s would face Whigs.
o Intense political opposition led to use of banners, free drinks, etc to “get out the vote”.
· Rise of voter turnout.
o ¼ of eligible voters voted in 1824 > doubled in 1828
o in election of 1840 reached 78%.
The “Corrupt Bargain” of 1824
· Last of old style elections marked by “corrupt bargain” of 1824.
· Lots at stake as James Monroe, last of Virginia dynasty, finished second term.
· Had four candidates
o John Quincy Adams of MA
o Henry Clay of KY
o William H. Crawford of GA
o Andrew Jackson of TN hero of New Orleans.
· All candidates professed to be “Republicans”
o HV well organized parties have not emerged yet that John Calhoun appeared as vice presidential candidate for Adams and Jackson’s ticket.
· Merits of Jackson: war hero, strong influence in West, campaigned against forces of corruption in government
o Won most of electoral votes than next two competitors combined, but failed to win majority.
§ AR House, as directed by 12th Amendment, must choose among top 3 candidates.
§ AR Clay was eliminated, yet as Speaker of the House, guided very chamber that picked the winner.
· Eliminated Crawford due to recent stroke.
· MW Clay hated Jackson, his archrival for allegiance of west.
o MW Jackson hated Clay’s public condemnation of his attack on Florida in 1818.
o AR Clay left with Adams.
§ Both advocates of the America System
· TF there may have been, may have not been a “corrupt bargain”
o Adams elected president, and Henry Clay announced to be secretary of state
§ Secretary of state was a prestigious role
· ¾ preceding secretaries reached presidency, considered almost pathway to Whitehouse.
· Jacksonians yell “corrupt bargain”
o Condemned Clay as “Judas of the West”
o John Randolph of VA condemned alliance b/w “Puritan [Adams] and the black-leg [Clay]”
· Bargain may not have been a “corrupt bargain”
o Adams was honest, would not cave into corruption, and Clay was natural choice for secretary of state.
o MW if deal was made, deals of this nature have long been used
· HV protest showed that what was common practice now condemned.
A Yankee Misfit in the White House
· John Quincy Adams son of John Adams.
o Considered most successful secretaries of state, yet one of least successful presidents.
o Was irritable, sarcastic and tactless.
· Did not have the popular support
o Fewer than 1/3 of voters voted for him, was the first “minority” president
o Commanded respect than popularity and against the new baby-kissing democracy.
· HV refused to remove efficient officers to create jobs for supporters.
o Only removed 12 servants from federal payroll.
o AR lost support among political supporters.
· MW state turned from post-Ghent nationalism to states’ rights and sectionalism.
o HV Quincy Adams went against tide and in first annual message upon Congress, called upon construction of roads and canals.
o Renewed Washington’s proposal for a national university + advocated federal support for astronomical observatory.
§ Public saw observatory as waste of money
· South esp. saw that if fed gov took on heavy financial burden, would continue the tariff duties.
· Also, if it could meddle in local concerns like education and roads, might even try to alter slavery.
· Land policy also against feverish speculation of public domain.
o President attempted to deal fairly w/ Cherokee Indians, but Georgia governor threatened to resort to arms and AR resisted efforts of Quincy Adams to pose fed authority on Cherokees.
§ Previously Georgians wanted the Cherokees out.
o MW president honestly attempted to curb feverish speculation.
Going “Whole Hog” for Jackson in 1828
· Presidential campaign for Jackson started early at day of Quincy Adams’ election.
· Political parties now had National Republicans (Adams) and Democratic Republicans (Jackson)
o Rally cries for Jackson = “Bargain and Corruption” “All Hail Old Hickory”.
o Denounced Adams as corrupt aristocrat
· AR 1828 election “mudslinging” reached new lows, much was political hyperbole
o Jackson was not frontier farmer but wealthy planter off slaves.
o Adams not corrupt, elevated by high puritanical morals.
§ Did not engage in mudslinging, but his supporters did.
· Voting results of 1828 had electoral split due to sections.
o Jackson support from West and South
o Adam support from New England
§ Middle states and old Northwest divided.
o HV after conversion to electoral votes, Jackson won 178 to 83.
§ By then the political center had shifted away from conservative New England
“Old Hickory” as President
· Jackson born poor and early orphaned, grew up without parental restraints.
o Moved to Tennessee, w/ personality, leadership, to become member of Congress.
o First president of the West, first nominated at a formal party convention (in 1832) and second without a college education [Washington first]
· Was an aristocrat, yet shared many prejudices of the masses.
· Inauguration symbolized the ascendancy of the masses.
o First time White House open to multitude.
o Commoners had threatened the “people’s champion” with cracked ribs, where Jackson then offered huge bowls of wekk-spiked punch – the “inaugural brawl”
· “King Mob” highlighted Jackson’s vulgarity and frightened conservatives.
The Spoils System
· Adapted by Jackson, rewarding political supporters with public office.
o Basic idea as old as politics, from Senator Marcy’s “to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy” in 1832.
o Spoils system defended by Jackson as each generation deserved its turn at the public trough.
· MW new posts were given due to party loyalty.
o No party overturn occurred since defeat of Federalists in 1800, and that did not clear all office holders of Federalists.
o AR men who openly bought posts were many illiterates and incompetents.
· Samuel Swartwout given post of collector of customs in port of New York.
o 9 years later would leave for England owing 1 mil to US gov – first to steal that many from gov.
· HV spoils system had promoted party order and cemented party loyalty over competitng claims based on economic class or geographic region.
The Tricky “Tariff of Abominations”
· Tariffs protected American industry against competition from European competitors.
o HV also drove prices up for all Americans
o AR retaliatory tariffs on agricultural exports.
· Middle and New England supported tariff.
o 1820s influential Daniel Webster gave up traditional defense of free trade to support higher tariffs.
o NE believed future in factory than sea.
· In 1824 Congress increased general tariff significantly.
o HV wool manufacturers wanted still-higher tariffs.
· AR Jackson promoted high-tariff bill, expected it to be defeated to inflict damage on Adams.
o HV passed in 1828 and Southerners outrageous against Tariff of 1828
o Previously the South opposed tariff due to heavy consumption but little production of manufactured goods.
· Tariff of 1828 aka “Black Tariff” aka “Tariff of Abominations”
o Southern states > formal protests
§ SC “Let the New England beware how she imitates the Old”
· South believed tariff discriminated against them.
o NE had boom in manufacturing, West prospered from rising property values, and SW from virgin cotton lands.
o HV Old South on hard times, TF tariff was plausible scapegoat.
· Old South had sold cotton to world completely unprotected by tariffs
o HV forced to buy manufactured goods in American market heavily protected by tariffs.
· MW Old South feared possible federal interference w/ slavery.
o MO Compromise delayed issue
o Further attacked due to aborted slave rebellion 1822 Charleston by Denmark Vesey.
§ MW SC knew of slaveowner brothers in West Indies facing pressure from abolitionism in London gov.
§ Feared for likewise in America.
· TF saw this as time to stand up for states’ rights.
· AR SC led protest against “Tariff of Abominations”
o Legislature 1828 published (though w/o formal endorsement) pamphlet The South Carolina Exposition.
§ Secretly written by John C. Calhoun (vice president of time)
o The South Carolina Exposition called tariff as unconstitutional.
§ Went beyond Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798 and proposed that states can and should nullify tariff
· Where it would be null and void within their borders.
“Nullies” in South Carolina
· Nullies attempted to muster required 2/3 vote for nullification in SC legislature
o HV Unionists “submission men” blocked them
· MW Congress passed new Tariff of 1832 to pare away worst of the 1828 tariff
o HV still protective and fell short of meeting southern demands
o Also felt like it would be permanent.
· AR in state election of 1832 “Nullies” won 2/3 majority and called for special convention which ruled that existing tariff is null and void within SC.
o Convention threatened to take SC out of Union if Washington attempted to collect tax by force.
· Jackson not a die-hard supporter of tariff, but did not permit defiance or disunion.
o Dispatched naval/military reinforcements to the “Palmetto State” (nullies wore palmetto ribbons on their hats) while quietly prepared sizeable army
o Issued proclamation against nullification, to which governor of SC and former senator Hayne responded w/ counterproclamation.
· Clay steps in and comes up with compromise bill that would reduce Tariff of 1832 by 10% over a period of 8 years.
o By 1842 would return to mildly protective level of 1816
o AR Tariff of 1833 eventually squeezed through Congress.
§ W/ most opposition from New England and middle states.
§ MW South and Calhoun favored compromise, TF Jackson could not use force.
o MW passed the Force Bill or known in SC as the “Bloody Bill”
§ Authorized president to use army and navy if necessary, to collect federal tariff duties.
· Calhoun did not gain open support from other southern states while Unionist minority began gathering guns.
o AR SC faced w/ civil war and invasion from without, TF special convention met again and repealed the ordinance of nullifcation.
§ Nullified the unnecessary Force Bill and adjourned.
· Neither Jackson nor “nullies” won clear victory in 1833
· Clay was hailed in Charleston and Boston alike for saving the country.
o HV issue only delayed, not resolved.
The Trail of Tears
· Jacksonians committed to western expansion.
· HV meant confrontation of Native Americans
· 125,000 lived east of Mississippi in 1820s.
§ Foreign policy toward them varied
· Washington saw them as sovereign nations and only agreed to acquire land through formal treaties.
· HV despite treaties, Indians stubborn negotiators and Americans violated the own treaties anyways.
§ Attempts made to “civilize” and Christianize the Indians.
· Society for Propagating Gospel Among Indians founded 1787 sent many missionaries to Indian villages.
· 1793 Congress granted $20,000 to promotion of literacy and agricultural instruction among Indians.
· Cherokee were most passive and accepting
§ Other tribes violently resisted white encroachment.
o Cherokees gradually adopted system of settled agriculture and a notion of private property.
o Sequoyah developed Cherokee alphabet.
o 1808 Cherokee National Council legislated written legal code
o 1827 adopted a written constitution for three branches of gov.
· Some Cherokees even became rich slave holders (1300 slaves toiled for Cherokees in 1820s)
· Cherokees, among Creeks, Choctaws, Chikasaws and Seminoles were the “Five Civilized Tribes”
§ HV Georgia legislature still declared Cherokee tribal council illegal and asserted its own juridiction over Indian legal affairs.
· Cherokee appealed this to Supreme Court which thrice upheld rights of Indians.
· HV Jackson refused to recognize Court’s decisions by saying “John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it”
§ In the end Jackson proposed bodily removal of remaining eastern tribes, chiefly Cherokees, Creeks,…Seminoles beyond the Mississippi into unwanted land of Oklahoma.
· Emigration to be voluntary b/c it would be “cruel and unjust to compel the aborigines to abandon the graves of their fathers”.
o Believed that Indians could preserve culture in West
· AR uprooting 100,000 Indians via 1830 Indian Removal Act and damaged Five Civilized Tribes most.
§ In 1830s countless Indians died on forced marches to est. Indian Territory where they were to be “permanently” free from white encroachments.
· Bureau of Indian Affairs est. in 1836 to admin relations w/ Native Americans
· HV “permanent” frontier to last about 15 years due to land-hungry whites.
§ Resistance from Sauk and Fox tribes led by Black Hawk bloodily crushed in 1832 by Lieutenant Jefferson Davis and Captain Abraham Lincoln.
§ MW Florida Seminoles retreated to Everglades and waged 7 years of guerilla war (1835-1842), taking lives of 1500 soldiers.
· HV when Seminole leader Osceola seized under flag of truce, would eventually retreat and flee deeper into Everglades.
· 4/5 to eventually live to Oklahoma.
The Bank War
· Jackson distrusted monopolistic banking and overbig businesses.
· Against the “moneyed monster” of the BUS.
· While national gov minted gold and silver coins in 1850s, paper notes were printed by private banks.
o Value fluctuated w/ bank’s decisions, giving private bankers considerable power over nation’s economy.
· BUS was most powerful bank in US.
o Principal depository for funds of Washington gov
o Controlled much of nation’s gold and silver.
o Notes were stable in value, unlike smaller bank.
· President Nicholas Biddle held immense (and to many unconstitional) amount of power over nation’s financial affairs.
o “Czar Nicholas I” ruling the bank, a “hydra of corruption”
§ MW bank foreclosed on many western farmers and drained “tribute” into East.
· Profit, not public service, was first priority.
§ AR bank result start 1832
· Clay presented Congress w/ bill to renew BUS
o Not set to expire until 1836, but pushed for renewal 4 years early to make it an election issue in 1832.
§ Believed that if Jackson signed it, would alienate western followers
§ If vetoed, would alienate influential groups in the East
· HV the influential groups were only a minority and have generally feared Jackson anyway.
§ AR Jackson vetoed it – “Old Hero” declared monopolistic bank to be unconstitutional.
· HV Supreme Court declared it constitutional in case of McCulloh v. Maryland (1819)
· Acted that executive branch was superior anyways
· “The Bank … is trying to kill me, but I will kill it”
§ Jackson’s veto message spread message of strengthened presidency.
· All previous vetoes rested almost exclusively on questions of constitutionality
· HV this one was a personal reason, claiming presidency to be above legislative and executive.
o Clay attempted to use this financial fallacy against him, but the common people understood this and this had little effect
“Old Hickory” Wallops Clay in 1832
· 1832 election Jackson v. Clay, “Jackson Forever: Go the Whole Hog” v. “Freedom and Clay”
· 3rd party anti-Masonic party involved
· Opposed influence and fearsome secrecy of Masonic order.
· Appealed to long standing American suspicions of secret societies.
o Also like Jackson, condemned citadels of privilege and monopoly.
§ HV Jackson himself was Mason TF anti-Mason = anti-Jackson party.
· MW anti-Mason party attracted evalangical Protestant groups seeking to use political power to emphasize their religious values (church v. state closer)
o Jackson generally opposed all gov meddling in social + econ life.
§ 1832 election also beginning of calling of national nominating conventions (3)
· Anti-Masons and National Republicans also adopted formal platforms to publicize positions on issues.
§ Clay and National Republicans benefited from ample funds and support from most newspaper editors.
· HV Jackson idol of masses won 219 – 49 in electoral count.
Burying Biddle’s Bank
· Jackson convinced voters want extermination of BUS
· Furthermore feared Nicholas Biddle might try to manipulate bank to force recharter.
§ AR removed federal deposits from its vaults to pay for day to day expenses of the government and proposed depositing no more funds into BUS.
· President’s closest advisers thought act unnecessary, possible unconstitutional.
· AR Jackson reshuffled cabinet twice before finding secretary of Treasurey who did not complain.
o Biddle attempts to rein in bank’s loans to produce a minor financial crisis
§ Small banks driven to wall due to “Biddle’s Panic” HV Jackson’s resolution firm.
§ HV death of BUS left a financial vacuum in the United States
· Surplus federal funds placed in dozen state institutions or specially chosen pro-Jackson “pet banks”
o Infamous for their fly-by-night operations of flooding nation with paper money.
· AR 1836 Jackson authorized Treasurey to issue a Specie Circular, a decree that required all public lands to be purchased w/ “hard” money.
§ Would lead to panic of 1837 – though by then he would have retired.
The Birth of the Whigs
· 1828 Jacksonians adopted once tainted name “Democrats”
§ MW opponents against Jackson’s exercise of presidential power condemned him as “King Andrew I”
· AR formed political party of Whigs.
§ Whigs develop as formidable party
· At first mocked for its disorganization as it is only united against Jackson.
· HV Clay, Webster, and Calhoun joined forces in 1834 to pass motion censuring Jackson for removal of federal deposits in BUS.
o From then after, Whigs rapidly evolved into potent political force by attracting by other groups
§ Supporters of Clay’s American System
§ Southern states’ righters offended by Jackson’s stand on nullification
§ Larger northern industrialists, merchants
§ Eventually many of Protestants with Anti-Masonic party.
§ Whigs seen as conservatives but were progressive in their support of active government programs and reforms.
· Called for internal provements instead of territorial acquisition.
· Supported prisons, public schools.
· Welcomed market economy TF drew support from manufacturers in North, planters in South.
o MW by attracting anti-Masonic party, had appealed to much of the common man.
§ AR anti-Masons now portrayed Jackson and esp. successor Martin Van Buren as imperious aristocrats, and themselves as defenders of the common man.
The Election of 1836
· Jackson too old to consider third term.
· HV attempted to serve a third term through Van Buren, a “yes man” (his previous secretary of state)
· Jacksonites did not support Van Buren with wild enthusiasm, though he promised to “tread generally” in his predecessor.
§ MW Whigs unable to nominate single candidate
· Attempted to nominate several “favorite sons” so that none may have majority where Whigs may have chance in the House.
o With Henry Clay rudely elbowed aside, leading Whig candidate was General William Harrison, hero of Battle of Tippecanoe.
§ HV Van Buren still squirmed into office 170 to 124.
Big Woes for the “Little Magician”
· Van Buren first president to be born in America
· Received much opposition
· Democrats objected to having Van Buren smuggled into office under Jackson
· Inherited ex-president’s numerous enemies.
· MW rebellion in Canada 1837 threatened to trigger war w/ Britain.
o Attempt to play neutral game led to “Woe to Marin Van Buren”
· Anti-slavery agitation rose
· Condemned the prospective annexation of Texas
· Inherited depression from Jackson
Depression Doldrums and the Independent Treasurey
· Panic of 1837 caused by speculation prompted by mania of get-rich-quickism.
· Speculation spread to canals, roads, railroads and slaves.
· Gamblers in western lands on borrowed capital, much in shaky currency of “pet banks”
· MW Jackson’s Bank War and Specie Circular added to it
· Failures of wheat crops due to Hessian fly forced grain prices very high.
· 1836 failure of two British banks caused British investors to call in foreign lones.
o AR America’s financial panic due to foreign economic panic.
§ Hardship acute and widespread
· Banks collapsed by hundreds, some “pet banks” carried millions in government funds down with them.
· Unemployment rose, commodity prices fell, sales of public lands fell
§ Whigs proposed for active gov remedies for expansion of bank credit, higher tariffs, subsidies for internal improvements.
· HV Van Buren listened to Jacksonian philosophy (to keep gov off economy) TF declined such ideas.
§ Van Buren passes “Divorce Bill”
· Attempt to follow Jackson thinking that federal funds into private banks is the problem
· AR “Divorce Bill” divorced gov from banking
o Gov could lock its surplus money of several larger cities, making them safe
o Funds would also be denied to banking system as reserves, TF little available credit resources.
· Received condemnation from both sides
o Democrats opposed it as they wanted the risky but lush days of the “pet banks”
o Whigs opposed it as it killed their hopes for a revived BUS
§ Independent Treasurey Bill to be passed in 1840, repealed by victorious Whigs, then to be repealed again by 1846 by Democrats, and then continued until it merged with Federal Reserve.
Gone to Texas
· Americans had abandoned Texas to Spain when acquiring Florida in 1819.
· MW Spanish meant to populate area, but Mexicans won independence.
· AR Mexico City arranged for Stephen Austin to be granted huge tract of land in Texas under contract that he is to bring 300 American families in to populate.
o Immigrants to be of Roman Catholic faith and to be Mexicanized.
o HV above two rules ignored.
· Texican-Americans 30,000 by 1835.
o Most abided by law, but David Crockett (famous riflemen), Jim Bowie (inventor of murderous Bowie’s blade), and ex-governor of Tennesse Sam Houston were not easy to push around.
§ AR friction rapidly increased.
· Mexicans + Texicans fought over issues such as slavery, immigration, and local rights.
o Mexico emancipated its slaves in 1830 and prohibited further importation of slaves into Texas or further colonization by Americans.
o HV Texans cont to bring slaves in and kept slaves in bondage.
§ When Stephen Austin went to Mexico City 1833 to negotiate differences w/ Mexican gov, dictator Santa Anna put him in jail for 8 months.
§ 1835 Santa Anna wiped out all local rights and started to raise an army to upstart Texans.
The Lone Star Rebellion
· 1836 Texas declared independence and named Sam Houston commander in chief
· AR Santa Anna at head of 6000 men butchered each at Alamo
· Slain heroes like Jim Bowie and Davy Crockett well-known in life, legendary in death.
· Texan war cries “Remember the Alamo”
o Gathered support of vengeful Americans.
§ Sam Houston’s small army retreated to east, luring Santa Anna to San Jacinto.
· Sudden turn and managed to catch Santa Anna, AR forced to sign two treaties
o Agreed to withdraw Mexican troops and recognize the Rio Grande as the extreme SW boundary of Texas.
o HV when released, Santa Anna said treaty was illegal as it was under duress.
§ MW Texans could not have won independence without help from Americans
§ AR Mexicans complained Washington under international law to enforce leaky neutrality statutes.
· HV due to American public opinion favoring Texans, openly nullified existing legislation.
· AR feds powerless to act but 1837 Jackson day before he left, extended recognition to Lone Star Republic, led by his old comrade in arms against the Indians, Sam Houston.
§ HV Texas also wanted union with US.
· HV Northerners with great opposition to annexation, thinking whole scheme was to add to the southern “slavocracy”
· Though Texas was naturally part of SW expansion, admitting it at slave state would enlarge American slavery.
The Log Cabins and Hard Cider of 1840
- Martin Van Buren renominated by Democrats in 1840 as they had no other choice.
- Whites this time united behind one candidate Ohio’s William Harrison.
o Was not the ablest statesmen (would have been Daniel Webster or Henry Clay instead)
o But was most ablest vote-getter.
o Known for successes w/ Battle of Tippecanoe (1811) and Thames (1813)
§ Nominated b/c he was issueless and enemyless
§ John Tyler of Virginia elected vice president.
- MW Whigs, eager to avoid offense, published no official platform
- When Democratic editor insulted the West, he mocked Harrison as an impoverished old farmer who should be content w/ a pension, log cabin and barrel of hard ciber.
o HV Whigs accepted hard cider and log cabin as symbols of campaign.
o Portrayed as the poor “Farmer of North Bend” to drive Jackson from the “presidential palace”
o “Tippecanoe and Tyler too”
- Harrison was not lowborn but from one of the FFVs (First Families of Virginia) and was an aristocrat like Jackson > HV details didn’t matter then, didn’t matter now.
- Harrison would win closely by popular vote, but in electoral vote would be 234 – 60
Politics for the People
- 1840 demonstrated two things since Era of Good Feelings
o 1 Triumph of the populist democratic style
§ Removed the aristocratic taint present from lordly Federalist ages
§ By 1840s aristocracy was the taint, democracy was respectable.
§ Candidate displaying any signs of aristocracy was handicapped.
· HV offices still held by the “leading citizens”, but had to give up all social pretensions and cultivate common touch.
§ Aristocrats unhappy over change, protested that tyranny of “King Numbers” no less offensive than that of King George.
· HV in vain.
· Common man is now center of national political stage.
The Two-Party System
- 2nd change from 1840 election was vigorous and durable two-party system.
o Jeffersonians had successfully absorbed Federalists that only one system in Era of Good Feelings.
§ Rose from idea that parties injured health of the body politic.
§ HV due to Jackson’s determinations, political parties formed by 1840.
- Both Democrats + Whigs from Jeffersonian republicanism.
o Jacksonian Democrats glorified liberty of the individual and guarded against privilege in government.
o Whigs glorified harmony of society, value of community, and willing to use gov to realize their objectives.
§ Against leaders who appeals to self interest creates conflict among classes, sections (i.e. Jackson)
o Jacksonians = states’ rights, federal restrain in social and economic affairs
o Whigs = a renewed national bank, protective tariff, internal improvements, public schools, and increasingly moral reforms
§ Reforms = prohibition of liquor and eventually abolition of slavery.
o Both mass-based, “catchall” parties that tried to mobilize as many voters as possible for their cause.
§ Democrats tended to be more humble and Whigs more prosperous
§ HV commanded loyalties from all places.
§ AR fostered compromises within each party so that none are radical.
· Diversity reduced sectional differences.
o HV only temporarily suppressed issue of slavery.
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