Chapter 17 Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy
- Territorial expansion dominated American politics in 1840s
§ Settlers swarmed into disputed Oregon Country aggravated British.
§ Clamor to annex Texas to Union = bitter relations w/ Mexico.
§ Land-hungry pioneers looked to land of California and soon war broke b/w America and Mexico.
· Victory would once again bring about question of slavery.
The Accession of “Tyler Too”
- 1841 President Harrison newly elected and almost hounded to death by Whig spoilsmen (he was a Whig, and now they are asking for positions)
§ HV real leaders of Whig party regarded “Old Tippecanoe” as only a figurehead
· Daniel Webster was secretary of state and Henry Clay was uncrowned king of Whigs and their ablest spokesman in the Senate.
· President had to remind them that it was him who was the president
§ HV Harrison soon contracted pneumonia and died 4 weeks later.
· Shortest administration followed by the longest inaugural address in the White House.
- AR now “Tyler too”
§ Had converted to a Whig because he could not stand Jacksonian tactics. AR accused of being a Democrat in Whig clothing.
· HV Tyler was part of minority wing which embraced a # of Jeffersonian states’ righters.
- Had been put on the ticket to attract this small group, many of whom were influential southern gentry
· Tyler never consented to run on Whig ticket b/c he was not pro-bank, pro-protective tariff and pro-internal improvements.
§ Was LARGELY DEMOCRATIC.
John Tyler: A President Without a Party
- After victory Whigs reveal their plans (from a not-so-secret platform anyways) for a strong nationalistic program.
§ Financial reform first > Whig Congress hastened to pass a law ending independent treasurey system.
· President Tyler amazingly agreed with it and signed it.
§ Clay then drove through Congress a bill for a “Fiscal Bank” to establish a new BUS.
· HV Tyler was hostile to centralized bank and Clay “the Great Compromiser” could not conciliate him as he was repeatedly robbed of presidency by other men.
· AR vetoed the bill on practical and constitutional grounds.
§ TF Whigs attempted to pass a “Fiscal Corporation”
· HV president nevertheless vetoed the offensive substitute.
§ AR Tyler condemned as “His Accidency”
· Many threatening letters, and a wave of influenza called “Tyler grippe”
· Tyler expelled from Whig party, one attempt to impeach him in House of Reps, and entire cabinet resigned (except for Secretary of State Webster who was in England negotiating)
- MW while tariff did bring additional revenue, Democratic Tyler thought that it provided distribution among the states of revenue from the sale of public lands in the West
§ He could see no point in squandering federal money when the Federal Treasurey was not overflowing
§ AR another veto.
§ TF Clayites redrafted tariff bill
· Removed offensive dollar-distribution scheme
· Pushed tariff rates to moderately protective level of 1832, roughly 32% on dutiable goods.
§ While Tyler did not like protective tariff, he recognized need for additional revenue, AR signed law of 1842.
· Pressure for higher customs duties would eventually decrease as country went away from depression.
A War of Words with Britain
- Anti-British sentiments
§ At bottom lay memories of two Anglo-American wars (Revolutionary and War of 1812)
§ Pro-British Federalists had died out and resulted in Jacksonian democrats.
· This invited British condemning American tobacco spitting, slave auctioneering, lynching and other unsavory features.
§ MW British magazines angered even more when they attacked Yankee shortcomings.
· AR American journals struck back
· Charles Dickens would enter this word war in gall-dipped pens, for they were being denied rich royalties due to no American copyright law (Not until 1891 would Congress extend copyright privileges to foreign authors)
§ MW America w/ building its canals, was a borrowing money nation. Bloated British were a lending nation.
· Phrase “bloated British bond-holder” famous.
· HV when panic of 1837 came, several states defaulted/repudiated bonds openly and honest Englishmen condemned Yankiee trickery.
§ Furthermore, 1837 an unsuccessful insurrection in Canada supported by minority of Canadians.
· HV hundreds of angry Americans (hoping to strike a blow against the British) fought back.
o President of 1837 unable to (like Texas) uphold weak neutrality regulations as it was against popular opposition.
· Furthermore, the Caroline was attacked by British force, an attack exaggerated by illustrators.
· HV this counterviolation of neutrality had Washington officials launch vigorous but ineffective protests.
§ 1840 Canadian McLeod after boasting of his part in the Caroline raid, arrested and indicted for murder.
· London made clear armed force was sanctioned and to execute him would mean war.
§ Conflict would renew once again w/ 1841 when British officials in Bahamas offered protection to 130 Virginia slaves who rebelled and captured American ship Creole
Manipulating the Maine Maps
- Explosive controversy in early 1840s over Main boundary dispute.
§ British determined to strengthen defenses to build road in the disputed area.
§ MW proposed route ran through what Maine claimed under misleading treaty of 1783.
§ AR a small-scale clash threatened to widen into war.
- When crisis deepened in 1842, London Foreign Office sent nonprofessional diplomat Lord Ashburton (who married a wealthy American woman) to speedily est. relations w/ Secretary Webster (who recently had been lionized during Britain visit)
§ Agreed on Maine Boundary Settlement 1842
· Americans were to gain 7000 of 12,000 square miles of wilderness in dispute.
· British got less land but won desired Halifax-Quebec route.
· Also an overlooked bonus in same treaty where British surrendered 6,500 square miles, later to be found containing priceless Mesabi iron ore of Minnesota.
§ AR tensions from Caroline affair eased.
The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone
- During uncertain 8 years since 1836, Texas lead a precarious existence.
§ Mexico saw Texas as revolting province, and threatened war if America attempted to annex it.
§ MW Texans forced to maintain costly military establishment.
· Could not tell when they would strike again.
· Mexicans had two unsuccessful but nevertheless fear-instilling raids.
§ AR Texas driven to negotiations w/ Britain and France to have shield of protectorate
· 1839, 1840 Texans also concluded treaties w/ France, Holland and Belgium.
o MW British and France interested in independent Texas
§ Republic under their control would check southern surge of Americans
· The American expansion posed threat to British New World.
§ Texas could turn upon Yankees and create diversion, where foreign powers could then move into Americas and challenge insolent Monroe Doctrine.
§ Conquer and divide would hopefully result in fragmentation and militarization of America.
§ MW British abolitionists want to free slaves in Texas, which would inflame nearby slaves of South.
· Also British merchants saw Texas as potentially free-trade area, to sneak past US tariff-protection.
· British manufacturers also perceived that Texas plains had one of greatest cotton-producing areas of future.
o Would relieve Britain dependence on American fiber (a supply that might be cut off by embargo or war)
The Belated Texas Nuptials
- Due to fears from British, Texas was leading issue in presidential campaign of 1844.
§ Foes of expansion opposed annexation while southern hotheads: “Texas or Disunion”
§ Pro-expansion Democrats under James K. Polk triumphed over Whigs under Henry Clay.
· TF Tyler saw this Democratic victory as “mandate” to acquire Texas.
§ TF Tyler deserves much credit for shepherding Texas into US.
· HV due to the worries of “conscious Whigs” fearing that Texas would add to slavery of states, Tyler arranged for annexation by requiring only a simple majority in both houses of Congress
o As opposed to needed 2/3 of vote.
· Resolution passed 1845 and Texas formally invited to become 28th state.
- AR Mexicans claim Americans despoiling them of Texas
§ Partly true in 1836 but hardly true in 1845 for area was no longer Mexico’s to be despoiled of.
· Mexicans could not reconquer the province.
§ Previously by 1845 Lone Star Republic threatened to involve US in series of ruinous wars in America and Europe.
· MW Americans were in a “lick all creation” mood when they sang “Uncle Sam’s Song to Miss Texas”.
o Song consisted of threatening whoever of getting Texas the gal
· AR this was avoided, and US cannot be accused of haste in achieving annexation as 9 years was waited.
Oregon Fever Populates Oregon.
- Area from west of Rockies to Pacific Ocean and north of Carolina to the line of 54 40’.
§ Parts or all claimed at some point by Spain, Russia, Britain and US.
· Spanish first to get there, but went away as Florida Treaty of 1819
· Russia retreated to line of 54 40 by treaties of 1824 and 1825 w/ America and Britain.
§ TF Britain and America claims Oregon.
· Britain claims it based on prior discovery and exploration, treayt rights, and actual occupation.
o Most important colonizing agency was Hudson’s Bay Company, trading profitably w/ Indians of Pacific NW w/ furs.
· Americans claimed in exploration and occupation.
o Captain Robert Gray 1792 stumbled upon Columbia River
o Lewis and Clark expedition 1804 – 1806 ranged overland through Oregon Country to the Pacific.
§ AR of American occupation that missionaries and settlers settled in Willamette River Valley south of Columbia in 1830
· Worked to save souls of Indians and instrumental in saving soil for the US
· Stimulated interest in faraway domains.
· MW scattered American and British pioneers in Oregon lived peacefully side by side.
o Treaty of 1818 sought to divide the vast domain at the 49th parallel.
§ HV British would have lost Columbia River, the St. Lawrence of the West.
o AR peaceful “joint occupation” between two.
§ HV Americans in early 1840s sudden “Oregon fever” had hundreds go over Oregon Trail
· By 1846 5000 Americans settled south of Columbia River.
· MW British only had 700 subjects north of Columbia.
o TF were losing the population race and saw wisdom of arriving at peaceful settlement.
- Only a small part of Oregon Country in actual controversy by 1845.
§ Consisted of quadrangle b/w Columbia River on the south and east. 49th parallel on the north and Pacific Ocean on the west.
· British repeatedly offered line of Columbia river, America repeatedly offered the 49th parallel.
o AR largely part of 1844 election issue, overshadowed BY the question of annexing Texas.
A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny
- Henry Clay easily most popular candidate in country, chosen for Whigs.
- Democrats, the expansionists, dominated by pro-Texas southerners, nominated James K. Polk of Tennessee, America’s first “dark-horse” or “surprise” presidential candidate.
§ Polk was Speaker of the House for four years, governor of TN for two terms.
§ Sponsored by Andrew Jackson, a “Young Hickory”
- Election of 1844 part of expression of mighty emotional upsurge known as Manifest Destiny.
§ 1840s and 1850s countless citizens felt sense of mission.
· Believed that Almighty God has “manifestly” destined American people for a hemispheric career.
· They would be “irresistibly” spreading their democratic institutions over entire continent, possible over South America as well.
· AR land greed and ideals incl. “empire” and “liberty” conjoined.
§ Democrats strongly swayed by Manifest Destiny.
· “Reannexation of Texas” (US had given up claims to Texas in so-called Florida Purchase Treaty with Spain 1819) and the “Reoccupation of Oregon” all the way to 54 40.
o 1846 “Fifty-four forty or fight”
· Also condemned Clay as “corrupt bargainer”
§ Whigs returned w/ “Polk, Slavery and Texas or Clay, Union and Liberty”
§ AR some medium mudslinging (involving lies from Whigs)
§ MW on issue of Texas
· The “Great Compromiser” wrote series of confusing letters which implied that he personally favored annexing slaveholding Texas (appealing to South) but also favored postponement (appealing to the North).
· May have lost more ground if he stuck to one side, but alienated ardent anti-slaveryites
- In a stretch drive, “Dark Horse” Polk won 170 – 105 electoral votes, though very narrowly by popular vote.
§ Clay would have won, but lost NY by 5000 votes where an antislavery Liberty Party absorbed 16,000 votes.
§ Ironically anti-Texas annexation Liberty party spoiled Clay’s chances and helped ensure election of pro-Texas Polk.
- MW land-hungry Democrats believed they had received mandate from voters to take Texas.
§ HV only special election would make that mandate – esp. w/ narrow results of 1844, TF no clear-cut answer to problems of Oregon, Texas, the tariff, slavery, the bank, and internal improvements.
§ HV regarded as clear mandate BY TYLER (also a Democrat) and signed joint resolution 3 days before leaving White House.
Polk the Purposeful
- Polk unimpressive and unwilling to delegate authority, “he went for what he fetched”
- Developed a 4 point program and with remarkable success achieved it in less than 4 years
§ 1 Lowered tariff
· Secretary of Treasurey Robert Walker reduced Tariff of 1842 from 32 to 25%.
o With strong support from southerners and complaints from Clayites (and esp in New England and middle states that American manufacturing would be ruined)
o HV Walker Tariff of 1846 would be very effective as it produced excellent revenue largely b/c it was followed boom times and heavy imports.
§ 2 restoration of the independent treasurey.
· Pro-bank Whigs in Congress opposed but victory rewarded the president’s efforts in 1846
o Previously development dropped by Whigs in 1841.
§ 3 + 4 = acquisition of California and settlement of Oregon.
· “Reoccupation” of the “whole” of Oregon had been promised to northerners.
· Southern Democrats, once they had annexed Texas, rapidly cooled off and Polk, a southerner, did not insist on 54 40 when pledging on his platform.
· HV feeling bound by 3 offers of his predecessors to London, he proposed the compromise line of 49
- MW British ministry affected by British anti-expansionists (“Little Englanders”) were persuaded that Columbia River was after all not the St. Lawrence of the West
§ Furthermore American influx might one day seize Oregon treaty and why fight to protect the unpopular Hudson’s Bay Company.
- AR Early 1846 Britain proposed line of 49
§ Polk gave decision to Senate and Senate agreed.
· America previously month deep into war w/ Mexico and feared that if they did not compromise, might lose both.
o AR northwestern states, hotbed of “Manifest Destiny” and “fifty-four fortyism” joined anti-slavery forces condemning what they thought as a base betrayal of the South
o Why did South support all of Texas but not all of Oregon?
§ Expansionist Senator Benton: because “Great Britain is powerful and Mexico is weak”
§ AR Polk with his “fifty-four forty or fight” did not get neither, but got a good compromise better for the long run.
Misunderstanding with Mexico
- California seen as prize, future gateway to Pacific, another issue in Manifest Destiny.
- 1845 population of CA mixed.
§ 13000 Spanish Mexicans, 75000 Indians and fewer than 1000 “foreigners”, mostly Americans.
§ Polk eager to buy California from Mexico, but strained relations due to war (and recalled Mexican minister after annexation) and diplomatic relations severed.
- MW US has claims against Mexicans for some $3 million in damages to American citizens and their property.
§ Mexican government formally agreed to assume debt, but had been forced to default on payments.
- Deadlock over Texan questions further tightened by boundary debate.
§ Previously south-western boundary of Texas had been the Nueces River.
§ HV expansive Texans on far-fetched grounds claimed more southerly Rio Grande instead.
- MW Mexicans less concerned about this as they believed all of Texas beloned to them.
§ HV Polk careful to keep American troops out of virtually all of no man’s land between Nueces and Rio Grande River as long as possibility of peaceful settlement
- Issue of California also strained as rumors of Britain attempting to buy or seize California, a grab Americans could not tolerate under the Monroe Doctrine.
§ At last desperate attempt Polk dispatched John Slidell to Mexico City as minister late in 1845
§ Instructed to offer max of $25 million to buy California and territory to east.
§ HV proud Mexicans would not even permit Slidell to present his “insulting” proposition.
American Blood on American (?) Soil
- 1846 Polk ordered 4000 men under General Zachary Taylor to march from Nueces River to Rio Grand, provocatively near Mexican forces.
§ When clash did not occur, he proposed to sak Congress to declare war on basis of 1) unpaid claims and 2) Slidell’s rejection)
§ Were a weak basis with minor cabinet opposition, would have “felt better” if Mexican troops fired first.
- HV 1846 May Mexican troops crossed Rio Grande and attacked Taylor’s command.
§ Now Polk asked Congress that “despite all efforts” of America’s to avoid a clash, hostilities were forced upon America due to the shedding of “American blood upon American soil”
· Patriotic Congress voted for war
· “Ho for the Halls of the Montezumas!”
o Even antislavery Whigs joined with the rest of the nation, though they later condemned “Jimmy Polk’s war”
- Polk was making history, not writing it.
§ If he was writing it, would have explained that American blood had been shed on soil that Mexicans had good reason to regard as their own.
· Whig congressman Abraham Lincoln introduced certain resolutions that requested as to the precise “spot” on American soil where American blood had been shed”
o Pushed the “spot” resolutions with such persistence that he came to be known as the “spotty Lincoln”.
- Did Polk provoke war?
§ California an imperative point in his program and Mexico would not sell it at any price.
· Only way was to use force or wait for an internal American revolt.
· MW British might snatch California, and grievances from Mexico were annoying yet tolerable.
· HV 1846 Polk was bent on grasping California by fair means or fowl.
§ American expansionists were also eager to tech the Mexicans a lesson.
§ Mexicans also want to humiliate America.
· Heavily overstaffed with generals, boasted of invading the US, freeing black slaves.
· Also hoped conflict w/ Britain over Oregon would further destroy Yankees.
§ AR both sides believed the other side was the aggressor.
The Mastering of Mexico
- Polk wanted California and not war. When war came, hoped to fight it on limited scale.
o MW Santa Anna, then exiled from Mexico in Cuba, said that if American blockades allow him to slip into Mexico, that he would agree to sell his country.
o HV Santa Anna ended up rallying countrymen for defending Mexico anyways.
- MW American operations in California successful.
o 1846 General Stephen W. Kearny led troops over Sante Fe Trail to Sante Fe and easily captured it.
§ Captain John C Fremont “happened” to be there and won province of California.
o General Zachary Taylor known as “Old Rough and Ready” fought way across Rio Grande into Mexico.
§ Success at Buena Vista.
§ Could not make decisive victory in semi-deserts of northern Mexico
o TF General Winfield Scott.
§ Emerged as hero of War of 1812, pushed inland from coastal Vera Cruz
§ Handicapped severely but succeeded in reaching Mexico City in Sept 1847.
· Proved to be most distinguished general by his country b/w 1783 – 1861
Fighting Mexico for Peace
- Polk anxious to end shooting as soon as he secured his territorial goals.
o Send along with Scott’s invading army chief clerk of the State Department, Nicholas Trist
o Arranged for armistice at $10,000.
§ When Santa Anna used money and time to bolster defenses, Polk, disgusted, abruptly recalled Trist.
§ HV soon Treaty of Guadalupe 1848 signed.
· Confirmed America title to Texas and yielded the enormous area stretching westward to Oregon and the ocean and California.
· Total expanse, incl. Texas, about ½ of Mexico.
· US agreed to pay $15 mil for land and assume claims of its citizens against Mexico of 3 mil.
o Trist highly annoying, but generally did what he was ordered to w/ speed
§ Previously had antislavery Whigs denouncing this war with increasing heat
· Had controlled House in 1847 and threatening to vote down supplies for armies in the field.
§ Previously also group of expansionists due to Manifest Destiny, wanted all of Mexico.
· If America had seized all, would have been burdened with heavy expenses.
· Farseeing southerners like Calhoun recognized South was a bit too greedy.
o Treaty submitted to Senate and approved 38 to 14.
§ Was condemned by both opponents who wanted all of Mexico and opponents who wanted none of it.
- Victors rarely pay indemnity (pay of compensation)
o Polk planned to offer $25 mil, but ended up paying $18 mil.
§ Cynics charge that America was guilt-tripping while apologists point to the “Anglo-Saxon spirit of fair play”
Profit and Loss in Mexico
- Cost 13000 American lives, most taken by disease.
- Total American expanse by 1/3 (counting Texas)
o Greater than the LA Purchase.
o Sharp stimulus given to Manifest Destiny.
- Campaigns provided priceless field of experience for most officers to be in Civil War, incl Robert E. Lee and Ulyssess S. Grant.
o Military Academy at West Point founded in 1802 justified its existence through well-trained officers.
o Navy proved worth through throwing a crippling blockade around Mexican ports
§ Marine Corps est. 1798 still sings its hymn about the Halls of Montezuma.
- MW American army demonstrated prowess, British and foreign powers reluctantly revised their estimation of Yankee military prowess.
- HV Mexicans embittered that Americans took ½ of their country, that they were paid for it scarecely lessened bitterness.
o Now regarded as the “Colossus of the North” to Latin America.
- War also stimulated issue of slavery
o Critics pointed to Mexican conflict as result of southern “slavocracy” and dependency on it.
§ Bulk of volunteers from South and Southwest.
o Conflict moved to Congress.
§ 1846 shortly after war started Polk requested $2 mil to buy a peace.
§ Representative David Wilmot of PA fearful of “slavocracy” introduced a fateful amendment.
· Stipulated that slavery should never exist in any of the territory to be in mexico.
· Twice passed the House, but not the Senate.
o Southerners unwilling
- AR Polk left office w/ California and Southwest, but also a now unavoidable slavery dispute.
o “Mexico will poison us” philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson.
o “Mexicon is to us the forbidden fruit…the penalty of eating it would be to subject our institutions to political death” John Calhoun.
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