Chapter 18 Renewing the Sectional Struggle
· Year 1848 highlighted by unrest
o Revolutions in Europe
o Treaty of Guadalupe officially ended war with Mexico but initiated political warefare.
§ Mexicans forced to relinquish enormous amount of real estate
· California, Texas, all area in between.
· AR raised issue of extending slavery into territories.
§ Northern antislaveryites behind Wilmot Proviso, flatly prohibiting slavery in any territory in Mexican War.
· Southern senators would block proviso, but would not end issue.
· Would split ranks of Whigs and Democrats and split national politics along North-South sectional lines.
The Popular Sovereignty Panacea
· Each of two political parties was vital bond for national unity.
o Each had powerful support in North and South.
§ If support was purely sectional, Union would be in peril.
o AR politicians would not directly confront issue of slavery.
· Democrats found General Lewis Cass to be new figure for the party
o Polk vowed to have one term.
o Was a veteran of War of 1812.
§ HV though had experience, considered somewhat pompous.
o When politicians would keep silent, views on extension of slavery well known.
o Reputed father of “popular sovereignty”
§ The doctrine that stated that sovereign people of a territory under the general principles of the Constitution should determine themselves the status of slavery.
§ Public supported due to it being part of democratic tradition of self-determination.
§ Politicians supported it as it was a comfortable compromise for slavery problem.
Political Triumphs for General Taylor
· Whigs nominated frank and honest Zachary Taylor, “Hero of Buena Vista”
o Had never held civil office or voted for a president.
§ Clay would normally be nominated, but had too many speeches and enemies.
o Whigs dodged all troublesome issues
o Taylor not committed himself to issue of slavery extension, but also owned a lot of slaves.
· Antislaveryites in North distrusted both Cass and Taylor and organized Free Soil party.
o Created due to silence from Democratic and Whig platforms.
o Supported flat out for Wilmot Proviso and against slavery in the territories.
§ Broadened appeal (more than other antislavery groups) by advocating federal aid for internal improvements and urging free government lands for settlers.
o Attracted industrialists that did not like Polk’s reduction of protective tariffs.
o Appealed to Democrats resentful of Polk’s settling of a part of Oregon while insisting on all of Texas.
§ Suggested southern dominance in Democratic Party.
o Attracted northerners who were not so much antislavery but against the thought of sharing land with blacks.
o Attracted a lot of “conscience Whigs” who condemned slavery on moral grounds.
· Free soilers would nominate former president Van Buren.
o “free soil, free speech, free labor and free men” was basis of the party.
o Condemned slavery not for enslaving blacks but for not having to compete with cheap slave labor.
o Argued that only w/ free soil in West could the American Dream of social mobility happen.
o First widely inclusive party organized only on slavery and confined to the North, would foreshadow emergence of Republican party 6 years later.
· Taylor victorious due to personality.
o As the “Hero of Buena Vista”, he “never surrenders”
o Taylor first, Cass second, Van Buren won no state but diverted enough votes from Cass in crucial NY to make Taylor win.
“Californy Gold”
· Taylor’s military background was military square in political round hole.
o Did not avoid issue by avoiding the slavery issue when discovery of gold came in early 1848.
· Many affected by “gold fever” – some would “strike it rich”, must others would have been money well ahead staying at home.
o Most profits gained from selling expensive foodstuffs to miners.
· Overnight in pouring of 10,000s of people overwhelmed small government in the Golden State.
o Most were lawless men and virtueless woman.
o AR outburst of crime from these people.
§ HV robbery, murder, violence and other commonplace crimes only partly discouraged through rough justice.
· 1848 – 1856 many manslaughters, but only three semilegal hanging.s
· TF most law-abiding citizens of California drafted constitution 1849 (privately encouraged by Taylor) and applied to Congress for admission.
o Large territory crossed usual territorial amount and thwarted southern congressmen attempting to block free soil
o Complained against Californians’ “impertinent” stroke for freedom.
Sectional Balance and the Underground Railroad
· South of 1850 relatively well off
o A large share of nation’s leadership.
o Had Taylor from Virginia and slaveowner in LA as president.
o Majority in cabinet and Supreme Court. Had equality in the Senate if outnumbered in the House.
o Cotton fields expanding, profits very high.
o AR slavery wqas not threatened as the 15 slave states could easily veto any proposed constitutional amendment.
· HV South worried by political balance.
o 15 slave and 15 free states.
o AR admission of California would destroy balance of Senate.
o MW potential slave territory in America running short, if nto disappeared.
§ Agitation already in New Mexico and Utah for admission as free states.
§ Feared California might est. precedent for rest of Mexican Cession territory, and area earned by southern blood.
· MW Texas spanned over large area to 42nd parallel and federal government proposing to detach this land.
o HV Mexican federal government threatening to go into Sante Fe and seize what they thought was rightfully theirs.
· MW southerners angered by North nagging of abolition of slavery in District of Columbia.
o Did not want a 10 mil square of free soil b/w slaveholding MD and VA.
· Runaway slaves an issue not taken care of by officials.
o Many slaves assisted by Underground Railroad.
§ Was a virtual freedom train of “stations” (antislavery homes)
§ Would go from slave states to free-soil of Canada.
§ Most amazing of “conductors” (abolitionists, black and white) was illiterate runaway slave from MD, Harriet Tubman.
· Rescued more than 300 slaves
§ AR by 1850 would demanding stronger fugitive-slave laws
· Old on passed in 1793 had unfriendly authorities that did not cooperate.
· While abolitionists did not gain personally from runaway slaves, Underground Railroad for slaveowners was property theft.
§ In end was approx. 1000 runaways from 4 mil slaves
· More blacks freed from self-purchase or voluntary emancipation
· HV principle of slaveowners was that it was violation of Constitution which protected slavery.
§ “Although the loss of property is felt the loss of honor is felt still more
Twilight of the Senatorial Giants
· Southern fears in 1850 increased Congress issues
· Free-soil California would disrupt political balance.
· “Fire-eaters” in the South (why fire eaters?) voicing threats of secession.
o Would bring together most distinguished statesmen since Constitutional Convention of 1787, where “immortal trio” Clay, Calhoun and Webster would appear together for the last time on public stage.
§ Calhoun “the Great Compromiser” still skillful despite his age.
§ Urged North and South to both make concessions and North to partially yield by enacting a stronger slave law.
· Senator Stephen Douglas “the Little Giant” seconded him.
§ Calhoun the “Great Nullifier” championed the South in last formal speech, though would be too weak to deliver it.
· Approved of purpose of Clay’s proposal but rejected them as not providing enough safeguards and plea was to leave slavery alone, return runaway slaves and give the South its rights as a minority.
· Also suggested to restore political balance via utterly unworkable scheme of electing two presidents, one North, one South, each wielding veto.
· Would die in 1850 before debate was over.
· Monument for him to have lived in “Truth, Justice and the Constitution
· HV his proposal almost undid efforts to preserve Union and take a stand on the Constitutional.
§ Daniel Webster also lost some of old energy, but upheld Clay’s compromise and urged all reasonable concessions to South, incl. stronger fugitive-slave law.
· Argued that for slavery in territories, God has already passed the Wilmot Proviso (the proposed legislation of $2 mil to resolve the slavery issue)
· That the territory in Mexican Concession not suitable for slave economy.
· Though was wrong as California would become one of greatest cotton-producing states of Union within 100 years.
§ HV was the famous Seventh of March speech 1850
· North began to compromise
· Many wanted printed copies of the speech.
· Esp pleasing to banking and commercial centers of North, where each would lose millions of dollars by secession.
o HV abolitionists who saw Webster as one of them braided him as traitor.
§ Unfair as Webster long regarded slavery as evil but disunion as worse, and always despised the abolitionists.
· AR Compromise of 1850.
o Concessions to the North
§ California to be admitted as free state.
§ Territory disputed by Texas and New Mexico to be surrendered to New Mexico.
§ Abolition of slave trade (but not slavery) to be present in DC
o Concessions to the South
§ Remainder of Mexican Cession area to be formed into territories of New Mexico and Utah w/o restriction on slavery, open to popular sovereignty
§ Texas to receive $10 mil from federal gov as compensation.
§ Stronger fugitive slave law going beyond that of 1793.
Deadlock and Danger on Capitol Hill
· Congregational debate of 1850 continued by the Young Guard
· Unlike the Old Guard, did not grow up with the Union
o Were more interested in purifying it then patching and preserving it.
§ William Seward freshman senator from NY able speaker for many northern radicals.
· Strong antislaveryite and against concession.
· HV did not realize that compromise had brought the Union together, and that when sections could no longer compromise, would have to part company.
· Argued to exclude slavery to territories on a “higher law” than the Constitution – this phrase would have cost him presidential nomination and presidency in 1860
· MW President Taylor appeared to have fallen under influence of “Higher Law” Seward.
o Vetoed any compromise passed by Congress.
§ Military background roused by threats of Texas to seize Sante Fe
§ Also appeared to “Jacksonize” the dissenters and to lead an army against Texans
· If troops begun to march, South would have rallied to defense of Texas and Civil War would have started then.
Breaking the Congressional Logjam
· 1850 Taylor steps down due to health and VP Millard Fillmore
o Fillmore signed series of compromise measures passed by Congress after months of stormy debate.
· MW country also found it hard to accept measures.
o Northern states the “Union savers” like Clay, Webster and Douglas supported the compromise.
§ Clay himself would deliver more than 70 speeches to develop acceptance in the North
§ Increased feeling of goodwill, also supported by the good feelings from California gold.
o HV “fire-eaters” of South still violently opposed to concessions.
§ Movements and talks of secession more serious and movement to boycott northern goods started, but ended by Unionists assisted by glow of prosperity from Californian gold.
· HV mid 1850 southern extremists gathered and took strong position in favor of slavery and condemned compromise measures passed by Congress
§ Would meet again later, but proved ineffective as by then southern opinion had reluctantly accepted Congress’ decision.
· AR 2nd Era of Good Feelings dawned.
o Talks of secession subsided and North and South determined that compromises be a “finality” and that issue of slavery be buried.
Balancing the Compromise Scales
· North clearly obtained better deal in Compromise of 1850
o Tipped Senate balance against the South
o Territories of New Mexico and Utah to be open to popular sovereignty, but law of nature dictates that chances are free soil will win.
o MW southerners needed more slave territory to restore the “sacred balance” but had no land left.
§ AR had to look to Caribbean to carve new state.
· HV South did obtain modest sum for Texas
o Though given up territory in Texas almost certain to be free.
· Had halted complete abolition in slavery by permitting only outlaw of slave trade
o HV was still a move towards emancipation in nation’s capital.
· HV Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 “the Bloodhound Bill” stirred up opposition from the North.
o Slaves could not testify on their behalf
o Denied a jury trial.
§ Some feared this would set a precedent for white Americans.
o Federal commissioner would receive $5 if runaway freed and $10 if not.
§ Resembled a bribe
o MW antislavery northerners who aided slave-escapes liable to heavy fines and jail sentences.
§ Might even be ordered to join old slave-catchers, rubbing salt into wound.
· AR of the savageness of the “Man-Stealing Law” that it shocked moderates
o AR drove many into antislaveryites.
o When runaway slave caught, he was to be returned through heavy federal guard.
o “we went to bed one night old-fashioned, conservative, Compromise Union Whigs and waked up stark mad Abolitionists”
§ Describes the change and opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850
· Underground Railroad
o Continued to rescue runaway slaves.
o MA would make a move towards nullification suggestive of South Carolina in 1832 and made it penal offense for any state official to enforce the new federal statute.
§ Other states passed “personal liberty laws” which denied local jails to federal officials and hampered enforcement.
§ AR abolitionists protested against man-stealing stature (of taking the slaves away)
· AR Fugitive Slave Law strong irritant of the 1850s.
o Awakened Northern antagonism.
o MW South angered that northerners not in good faith to execute the law, the one real gain from the Great Compromise of 1850.
§ AR slave-catchers redoubled their efforts.
· MW time was against Southernists as with every passing decade, North was forging ahead with population and wealth in crops, factories, ships and railroads.
o Delay also added to moral strength of North – will to fight for the Union.
o AR of Fugitive Slave Law many more northern moderates willing to resist secession whatever the cost.
§ This decade gave North time to accumulate material and moral strength.
§ AR Compromise of 1850 from one point of view, won the Civil War for the Union.
Defeat and Doom for the Whigs
§ Democratic nomination was the second “darkhorse” candidate in American history (who was the first?) – Franklin Pierce.
o Whigs scoffed at his obscurity.
o Pierce a weak and indecisive figure.
o HV generally enemyless as he was obscure and as a prosouthern northerner, acceptable to slavery wing of the Democratic Party.
§ His platform would promote finality of Compromise of 1850 Fugitive Slave Law and all.
· MW Whigs with momentum of achievement in Compromise of 1850.
o AR would have been logical for President Fillmore or Webster to be nominated (both associated with it)
o HV as they have previously won with military heroes, nominated Winfield Scott, probably ablest American general of his generation.
§ HV appearance repelled masses
o MW also praised the Compromise of 1850 as the “final” arrangement, though less enthusiastically than the Democrats.
· AR of issue on sectionalism and slavery softened, the election of 1852 one of attack on personalities.
· HV Whig party was hopelessly split
o Antislavery Whigs of North accepted Scott as nominee but did not like his platform (of endorsing the Compromise of 1850 which included Fugitive-Slave Law)
o MW Southern Whigs doubted Scott’s loyalty to the Compromise of 1850 esp. the Fugitive Slave Law and accepted the platform but not the candidate.
· Election of 1852 significance.
o Marked effective end of the disorganized Whig party and within a few years its complete death.
o Whigs’ death showed importance of focusing on national parties as opposed to having sectional political arguments.
§ Whigs had only won two presidential elections (1840 and 1848) due to luck.
o Finally suffered from attempting to support the Fugitive Slave Law.
· HV greatest contribution of Whigs was to help uphold ideal of Union through electoral strength in South and through leaders incl. Clay, Webster.
o Both would die in 1852 campaign, but contributed to eventual preservation of a United States.
President Pierce the Expansionist
- Pierce of Democrats would win landslide
o Cabinet contained aggressive southerners incl. secretary of war Jefferson Davis (future president of the Confederacy)
o Southerners determined to acquire more slave territory and Pierce would follow their determination.
§ Victories of Mexican War stimulated spirit of Manifest Destiny.
§ Conquest of a Pacific frontage, discovery of gold = interest in the transisthmian land routes of Central America (esp. Panama and Nicaragua)
· Sourtherners took special interest in Nicaragua.
· William Walker repeatedly tried to grasp Nicaragua in 1850s.
o Previously failed to seize other states from Mexico and turn it into a slave state.
· Would eventually be backed by a southern army and installed himself as president of Nicaragua in 1856, only to be overthrown by a coalition of Central American nations.
§ Nicaragua also great concern to Great Britain.
· Was still the world’s leading maritime and commercial power.
· Proposed Nicaraguan canal route
o Would weaken possiblie Yankee monopoly on trade arteries there.
o Challenged Monroe Doctrine and raised possibility of war.
o HV 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty stipulated that neither America nor Britain would fortify or secure exclusive control over any future isthmian waterway.
§ At the time seemed necessary to halt the British, but to American canal promoters in later years proved to be an impeding factor.
- MW America had become a Pacific power w/ acquisition of CA and Oregon
o Both faced Asia.
o Prospects of rich trade with Far East seemed more fortunate.
- Had est. relations with China
- MW shippers pushed for commercial intercourse w/ Japan.
o HV mikado’s empire after some experiences w/ European world, withdrawn into isolationism and remained there fore over 200 years
§ So protective that they prohibited shipwrecked foreign sailors from leaving and refused to readmit to Japan when their own sailors have been washed up on West Coast of North America.
o HV Japan was ready to emerge from isolation by 1853 due to Russian menace.
- 1853 sent fleet of awesome warships by Commodore Perry, brother of the hero in the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813.
o Persuaded 1854 to sign memorable treaty.
§ Provided for commercial foot in the door and was the beginning of epochal (highly significant)
Coveted Cuba: Pearl of the Antilles
- Sugar-rich Cuba, very close to southern border of nation, was primary objective of Manifest Destiny in 1850s.
o Had large population of blacks, coveted by South as most desirable slave territory available.
o Were carved into several states.
- Cuba was most important remnant of Spain’s once-mighty New World empire.
o Polk offered $100 million for it but Spaniards rejected it.
§ Would not negotiate w/ Americans.
§ AR seizure only possibility.
- Private adventures during 1850-1851 – two “filibustering” expeditions (from Spanish filibustero meaning “freebooter” or “pirate”)
o Both feeble efforts repelled where the latter one had tragic death.
o AR angered southerners that Spain’s consulate in New Orleans sacked.
- MW Spanish officials in Cuba 1854 seized American steamer Black Warrior
o AR Pierce to provoke war to seize cuba
§ MW England, France and Russia (the major powers of Europe) were about to be involved in Crimean War and would be unable to help Spain.
- Cloak-and-dagger (secretive) events of the invasion.
o Secretary of state instructed American ministers in Spain, England, and France to prepare confidential recommendations for the acquisition of Cuba.
§ Met initially at Ostend Belgium where three envoys drew up top-secret dispatch known as the Ostend Manifesto.
· Urged that admin spend $120 mil to Cuba.
· If Spanish refused and its continued ownership endangered American interests, then it would be “justified in wresting” the island from the Spanish.
§ HV Ostend Manifesto quickly leaked out.
o AR Northerners already angered by Fugitive Slave Law and other gains highly opposed the “manifesto of brigands”
§ TF due to disruption at home Pierce forced to drop schemes for Cuba.
- TF slavery expansion deadlocked in 1850s.
o MW North flushed w/ Manifest Destiny, developing renewed appetite for Canada.
§ HV neither section would permit the other to get other’s coveted place.
o MW Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom, whose plight had already stung the conscience of the North (Uncle Tom’s Cabin was an antislavery novel) now held the South back from Cuba.
Pacific Railroad Promoters and the Gadsden Purchase
- Acute (short but severe) transportation problems another legacy of Mexican War.
o California/Oregons 8000 miles west of nation’s capital, almost unreachable.
§ Sea routes to and from Isthmus of Panama were too long.
§ Covered wagon travel possible but slow and dangerous.
o AR transportation imperative or newly won possessions would break away.
§ Camels “ships of the desert” were proposed, but mule-driving Americans did not adjust.
- AR railroad required. North and South projected many circuits, but due to high cost there can only be one of them.
o Whatever section railroad to be built in, would have rich rewards in wealth, population and influence.
o TF due to South losing economic race w/ North, eager to extend railroad through adjacent SW territory to California.
- MW another part of Mexico desirable.
o Campaigns of recent war shown that best railway route ran slightly south of Mexican border.
o AR Secretary of War Jefferson Davis arranged to have Gadsden, a prominent SC railroad man, appointed minister to Mexico.
§ TF found Santa Anna in power and as usual in the need of money.
· AR negotiated treaty in 1853 ceding to the United States the Gadsden Purchase area for $10 million.
o Transaction = much criticism from northerners
§ Objected to paying so much for desert.
§ HV Senate approved the pact and process short-sightedly eliminated a window on the Sea of Cortez
- AR South insisted on southern track with greater insistence.
o “Would be easier to build b/c mountains less high and route would not pass through unorganized territory”
§ Texas already state at this point and New Mexico (w/ Gadsden Purchase added) was formally organized territory.
· Had federal troops to provide against Indians’ attack.
· HV with any northern or central railroad, the railroad would be through unorganized territory of Nebraska where buffalo and Indians roamed.
- TF North responded that if organized territory was the test, then Nebraska should be organized.
o MW already many pioneers in Nebraska border.
o HV all schemes to organize territory greeted w/ apathy by many southerners.
§ Why should the South help create new free-soil states to facilitate a northern railroad?
Douglas’ Kansas-Nebraska Scheme
- 1854 Senator Stephen Douglas eager to oppose thrust for southern railroad and southern expansion westwards.
o “Little Giant” longed to break deadlock over North-South and stretch line of settlements across the continent.
o Had invested heavily in Chicago real estate/railway stock so eager to have eastern terminus of Pacific railroad to be in IL.
- AR to get the support of the South, proposed Territory of Nebraska to be sliced into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska.
o Where their status regarding slavery would be settled by popular sovereignty.
§ Was a democratic concept his western colleagues deeply attached to.
o Where Kansas which was directly west of slave state MO would presumably choose to become slave state, where Nebraska, west of free-soil Iowa, would presumably become free state.
- HV proposal conflicted with MO Compromise of 1820
o Where MO Compromise forbade slavery in proposed Nebraska Territory north of 36 30 line and only way to open it was to repeal ancient compact.
§ Douglas prepared to even break risky Compromise of 1850.
o Southerners saw chance to gain one more slave state where it was previously impossible, AR supported it and so did Pierce and his administration.
- HV Northerners regarded the sectional pact almost sacred as Constitution itself – could not be brushed aside lightly.
o Free-soil members v. Douglas.
o HV Douglas was ablest debater of his generation.
o AR got bill through Congress w/ strong support from southerners.
- Motives of Douglas reviving slavery issue questionable
o Personal interests mentioned, but foes also point out him angling for presidency in 1856.
o HV defenders argue if he did not create the bill, someone else would have.
- HV Douglas did act impulsively and recklessly.
o Was not hardcore abolitionist and declared he did not care whether states became slave or not.
§ HV northerners in generally did feel deeply on this moral issue.
§ Regarded repealing of MO Compromise as breach of faith, and would TF resist all southern demands for slave territory.
o As Abraham Lincoln said regarding North and their commitment to free-soil, the North wanted to give to pioneers in the West “a clean bed, with no snakes in it”.
- AR Douglas regarded as traitor, but still enjoyed high degree of popularity among his following in Democratic, esp. IL, the stronghold of popular sovereignty.
Congress Legislates a Civil War
- Kansas-Nebraska Act one of most momentous measures ever to pass Congress.
o Antislavery northerners angered by what they saw as bad faith by the “Nebrascals”
o AR all future compromise w/ South would be more difficult.
- TF w/ Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, previously half-heartedly enforced by North, now not enforced at all.
- AR Kansas-Nebraska Act wrecked MO Compromise of 1820 (which it repealed specifically) and the Compromise of 1850 which northern opinion repealed indirectly.
- MW antislaveryites gained numerous recruits which resented growing “slavocracy” for Kansas.
o Southerners in turn angered by free-soilers attempting to control Kansas.
- TF Democrats a party now over 150 years old, shattered by Kansas-Nebraska Act.
o Did elect a president in 1856 but he was last one to be in White House for 28 years.
§ James Buchanan
- MW Republican party started from Kansas-Nebraska Act.
o Rose as a protest against gains of slavery.
o Soon included the Whigs (among them Abraham Lincoln), Democrats, Free-Soilers, Know-Nothings, and other foes of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
§ Previously unheard of in beginnings of 1854, but elected a Republican Speaker of the House of Reps within two years.
o Emerged overnight to become a second major political party, and a purely sectional one at that.
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