Chapter 7 The Road to Revolution
The Deep Roots of Revolution
- America had been a revolutionary force since discovery
o Nurtured new ideas about society, citizen and government.
§ In Old World it was very hard to change ranks in society.
§ TF few people questioned their lowly social status.
o AR new surroundings of America makes new start in immigrants’ life
- Two ideas shaped minds of Americans
o Republicanism
§ A republic was a just society where all citizens willingly subordinated private, selfish interests to common good.
· Where stability of society and authority of government depended on virtue of citizens.
· Incl. citizens’ selflessness, courage, self-sufficiency and appetite for civic involvement.
§ TF opposed hierarchical and authoritarian institutions
· Incl. opposing aristocracy and monarchy.
- “Radical Whigs”
o Feared the threat to liberty from monarchs and his ministers
§ Attacked the “corruption” of the king’s ministers who were subject to bribes.
§ Whigs warned citizens to be on guard against corruption and to be vigilant against threats to take their liberties away.
- AR of the “radical Whigs” and Republicanism, people are very protective of rights
o AR Dukes, princes, bishops were unknown in colonies while property ownership and political participation widespread.
§ B/c distances b/w London and Americans too large
§ TF had long become accustomed to running their own affairs.
Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances
- British empire was in state of absentmindedness
o Only Georgia of 13 original colonies formally planted by British government.
- HV British government developed mercantilism to justify control over colonies
o The belief that wealth was power, and a country’s economic wealth (and hence economic, political power) was to be measured by amt of “hard money”, incl gold, silver in treasurey.
§ To gain, a country must export more and import less.
§ TF colonies “helped” by producing raw materials and provided guaranteed market for exports.
· AR reduced foreign imports.
o AR British government looked at colonists as tenants
§ Expected to export to mother land, products need by them incl. tobacco, sugar, ships’ mast.
§ Expected to not export certain products (woolen cloth, beaver), and buy imported manufactured goods exclusively from Britain.
§ TF expected not to est. economic or political self-sufficiency.
- British passed laws to regular mercantilist system.
o First was Navigation Laws of 1650.
§ Aimed at Dutch attempting to become part of American trade.
§ AR of Navigation Laws all trade w/ Americas must go through British first.
· British middlemen made profits off increased prices while colonists lost from cheap prices and tariff duties.
· “Enumerated” products were to be sold exclusively to British.
o Even though prices better elsewhere. Incl. tobacco.
o British inflicted currency shortages
§ Colonists were forced to regularly buy from Britain
· HV bought more from Britain then sold there
· TF difference had to be made up in hard cash.
o Gold and silver (mostly from illegal trade) drained.
§ TF colonists attempted to issue paper money.
· AR swiftly depreciated.
· TF Parliament prohibited printing paper currency and prohibited passing of lenient bankruptcy laws.
o These posed some threat to British merchants.
o British crown could also veto any legislation passed by colonial assemblies if they were against mercantilist system.
§ Though used sparingly, still used 469/8563 laws.
§ HV colonists still resented the royal veto.
· Showed how principle weighed more than practice in fueling colonial grievances.
The Merits and Menace of Mercantilism
- Were loosely enforced before 1763
o TF did not provide intolerable burden.
o Many merchants were already smuggling and avoid restrictions.
- Colonists also managed to benefit from mercantile system.
o London paid liberal bounties for colonial producers of ship parts
§ Led to protests in British competitors
o Enjoyed monopoly of tobacco in the British market
o Enjoyed protection of world’s strongest navy and strong British army.
§ This benefit did not cost the colonists anything.
- HV mercantilism stifled economic initiative and imposed dependency on British
o Colonists feel that they were used and kept in the state of control, w/ no freedom.
§ AR when Theodore Roosevelt remarked at Revolution, Britain failed to recognize an emerging nation when it saw one.
The Stamp Tax Uproar
- After the Seven Years’ War
o British held one of the biggest empires in the world
o HV also held debt of 140 mil pounds.
§ Half of which from defending American colonies.
§ TF British turned to redefine economic relationship w/ colonies.
o Prime Minister George Grenville in 1763 first aroused resentment by ordering British navy to begin enforicing Navigation Acts.
§ Had also secured from Parliament the Sugar Act of 1764
- First law ever passed by Parliament for raising tax in colonies for crown
- Increased tax on foreign sugar from West Indies
o Tax lowered after protests.
§ HV soon Quartering Act of 1765 imposed which required certain colonies to provide shelter, food for British troops.
§ MW same year Grenville imposed Stamp Act
- Req. payment of tax for bills, playing cards, newspapers, etc.
- Used to support new military force.
o Grenville believed that the acts were fair
§ Were asking colonists to pay for new military defenses in their colonies
§ These acts were much lighter than British peoples
- Had been paying a heavier stamp tax for over two generations
- HV Americans were thoroughly angered
o Took money away.
o Appeared to them that they threatened liberties colonists believed rightfully theirs
§ TF some colonial assemblies refused to comply w/ Quartering Act
- Others voted for a fraction of supplies called for.
- Grenville had jeopardized basic rights of colonists
o Sugar Act and Stamp Act both took jury away from a trying offender
§ B/c both acts were unpopular among colonists and jury would unlikely convict a violator of the acts.
§ Also began a “guilty until proven innocent”.
- Colonists had lost an ancient privilege colonists held most dear
- Increased military presence arouse suspicion
o French were expelled from continent and Pontiac tribes crushed.
§ TF Americans, especially motivated by radical Whigs’ suspision on all authority, began to arouse suspicion
§ TF focused on Stamp Acts w/ “No taxation without representation”.
- Even though the most rebellious (against the Stamp Act) were the tidewater and seaport towns, which denied full representation to their own backcountry pioneers.
- Opposition against “no taxation without represntation”
o Colonists emphasized distinction b/w legislation and taxation
§ Argued that Parliament could legislate matters that affected whole empire, HV had no right to impose taxes on Americans
- When there were no Americans seated in Paliament.
- TF argued only colonial legislatures could tax them
- British Parliament taxing then = robbery
o Grenville dismissed American protests
§ Elaborated on idea of “virtual representation”
- Argued that each member represented all British subjects
- AR because Parliament was “undivided”, Americans were represented.
o HV Americans gradually begin to consider own political independence
§ Opposed “virtual representation”
- Though they did not want seats in the parliament.
- As they were few in number and representation gave right for House of Commons to propose oppressive tax bill on colonies.
§ TF principle of taxation w/o representation was persistently valued by colonists.
Parliament Forced to Repeal the Stamp Act
- Colonies protest Stamp Act in various ways
o The Stamp Act Congress of 1765
§ Group of 27 distinguished delegates from 9 colonies met in NYC
§ Debated and drew up statement of rights and grievances and beseeched king and Parliament to repeal legislation
· Was ignored in England
· HV was still a step towards intercolonial unity.
o Adoption of nonimportation agreements against British goods.
§ Homespun woolen garments became fashionable
§ Eating of lamb discouraged so sheep could be allowed to mature.
· AR spontaneously united American people for first time.
· Gave men and women new opportunities to participate in colonial protests
o Those who stood in sidelines now joined protests
o Groups of women assembled to produce homespun cloth.
§ AR had spread revolutionary fervor throughout American colonies
· Sometimes protests included violence
o Groups known as the Sons of Liberty and the Daughters of Liberty violently ransacked houses of unpopular officials
§ Violaters, w/ generous coat, etc also victims
§ Popular phrase “Liberty, Property, and no Stamps”
o AR of violence, machinery for collecting tax broke down.
§ TF stamp agents have been forced to resign and law was openly defied
o England suffers from America’s retaliations
§ America had been ¼ of all British exports
§ ½ of British shipping devoted to American trade.
· TF shippers, merchants suffered from colonial nonimportation agreements. Many lost jobs.
· AR demands for Parliament to repeal Stamp Act.
o Though members could not understand why 7.5 mil Britons had to pay heavy taxes to protect colonies while 2 mil colonists would not pay for 1/3 of cost for own defense
o TF 1766 Parliament repealed Stamp Act.
§ Some grateful citizens in New York created a statue of King George III
o HV was soon followed by Declaratory Act
§ Reaffirmed Parliament’s right to “bind” colonies in “all cases whatsoever”
§ Had defined that it would not yield the constitutional principle of absolute sovereignty over colonies
o HV America had already made clear they wanted own measure of sovereignty and would take drastic action to secure it.
§ TF would soon melt statue of King George III.
The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston “Massacre”
- Townshend controls British ministry
o Known for delivering brilliant speeches in Parliament even while drunk
o Persuaded Parliament in 1767 to pass Townshend Acts
§ A light import duty on glass, white lead, paper and paint, tea.
· Tax on tea was especially burdensome as it was very popular drink
§ Made this tax indirect and more justified because of difference b/w internal and external taxes.
§ Was an indirect customs duty payable at American ports
· HV was same old taxation w/o representation to colonists
- AR colonists believed it was another one of attempts to enchain them.
o Townshend revenues were to pay the salaries of royal governors and judges in America.
§ London believed this was overdue payment.
o Worst fears took reality when NY legislature suspended in 1767 for failure to comply w/ Quartering Act.
- Colonists attempt to work way around the act
o Nonimportation agreements once again restarted.
§ HV were less effective as they took new tax less seriously.
· Partly because tax was light and indirect.
· Also found that tea could be smuggled at cheaper price
o TF increased smuggling activity, esp in Massachusetts.
- British officials, enraged, send troops.
o Landed two regiments in Boston 1768
§ Soldiers were drunken and profane while colonists taunted them
o TF on March 6 1770, crowd of 60 townspeople started conflict w/ redcoats.
§ One was hit by club and another knocked down.
§ TF apparently troops opened fire and wounded eleven citizens.
· In court, only two of redcoats found guilty of manslaughter.
o John Adams served as defense attorney for soldiers
The Seditious Committees of Correspondence
- George III was in charge of a corrupt government
o 1770 was only 32 years old.
o Was stubborn, industrious, and lustful for power.
§ Surrounded himself w/ “yes men”, especially his prime minister Lord North.
o Lord North’s government faces challenges from failed Townshend Acts
§ Townshend had failed to produce revenue, instead produced rebellion
§ Nonimportation agreements still hurt British manufactures
· ETH were feebly enforced.
o AR Lord North’s government persuaded Parliament to repeal Townshend Acts
§ HV tax on tea was retained to continue principle of parliamentary taxing
· Was also the tax colonists despised most.
- MW British officials attempt to enforce Navigation Laws.
- While Samuel Adams of Boston (cousin of John Adams) was sensitive to infractions of colonial rights.
o TF organized his signal contribution of local committees of correspondence.
§ First in Massachusetts, Boston in 1772.
§ AR soon all other towns in colony set up similar organizations.
o Goal was to spread spirit of resistance by spreading letters.
- Virginia takes a step towards intercolonial committees of correspondence
o 1773 created such a body as a standing committee of House of Burgesses.
o AR soon every colony estl central committee.
§ These committees were significant in est. sentiment in favor of united action.
§ Were to evolve directly into first American congresses.
Tea Parties at Boston and Elsewhere
- By 1773, nothing happened to ease matters
o Increasing numbers of colonists begin reluctantly paying tea tax
§ As legal tea was now cheaper than smuggled tea, and tea in England
- British East India Company exacerbates matters
o Burdened with 17 mil pounds of unsold tea.
§ Was about to face bankruptcy.
§ If collapsed would make London government lose heavily in tax revenue.
§ TF ministry awarded it complete monopoly of American tea business.
· AR could sell tea evern cheaper before.
o HV Americans saw this as another attempt to spread taxation.
- TF most Americans refused to buy the tea.
o If British officials insisted on letter of law, violence would result.
§ HV decided to enforce the law.
o None of thousand chests of tea shipped by East India Company reached hands of consignees.
§ Mass demonstrations in Philadelphia and NY forced tea-bearing ships to return to England w/ cargo still full.
§ Annapolis Marylanders burned cargo and vessel
· Proclaimed “Liberty and Independence or death in pursuit of it”
§ In Charleston, South Carolina officials seized tea for nonpayment of duties after intimidated local merchants refused to accept delivery
· Confiscated Charleston tea later auctioned to raise money for Revolutionary army.
- Officials in America cowed in presence of mob
o Except for Thomas Hutchinson, Massachusetts governor.
§ Opposed colonists flouting the law, even though he believed that tea tax was unjust.
· His home was already ransacked in Stamp Act protests
§ Ordered tea ships not to clear Boston harbor until they’ve unloaded cargoes.
§ Hutchinson had declared that sacrificing English liberties were necessary for preserving law and order in coonies.
o AR December 16, 1773 a group of Bostonians (clumsily disguised as natives) boarded docked tea ships and smashed upon 342 chests and dumped contents into harbor.
- Reactions of the Americans and British
o Radicals exulted in zeal of liberty, conservatives complained about damage of private property.
o British authorities saw little alternative
§ Hutchinson returned to Britain and was not to return.
§ Did not consider granting home rule to Americans, which would have prevented rebellion.
· Few were blessed with this widom.
· Edmund Burke were among the few who were, who supported and understood American’s actions.
o Was a conservative political theorist.
Parliament Passes the “Intolerable Acts”
- British swiftly responds to Boston Tea Party
o 1774 passed w/ majority of votes acts designed to punish Boston in particular, Massachusetts in general.
§ Boston Port Act was most drastic
· Closed tea-stained harbor until damages paid and order ensured
§ Other acts known as “Intolerable Acts”
· Chartered rights of Massachusetts taken away.
· Restrictions placed on town meetings.
· Officials who killed colonists in line of duty were to be sent to Britain for trial
o Suspected to be let off innocent.
o Quebec Act 1774
§ Was regarded as British reaction to Tea Party even though it was a good law w/ bad timing.
· Previously British had debated whether to admin French subjects in Canada.
· AR of act, French were guaranteed Catholic religion and permitted to retain old customs and institutions
o Though did not include representative assembly or trial by jury.
o AR boundaries of Quebec extended southward all the way to Ohio River.
§ Were regarded by French as a conciliatory (wanting to improve relationship) act.
§ HV English speaking colonies viewed it as noxious (harmful to physical well-being)
· Appeared to be precedent to future trials with no juries or popular assemblies.
· Alarmed land speculators who had huge trans-Allegheny area taken “from” them.
· Aroused anti-Catholics as now Catholics have an area about as large as thirteen original colonies.
The Continental Congress and Bloodshed
- America responds to the Intolerable Acts w/o violence…yet
o Responded sympathetically to plight of Massachusetts
§ Colonies sent food to Boston, including rice from South Carolina.
o The summoning of the Continental Congress 1774
§ A meeting in Philadelphia to consider ways of redressing colonial grievances.
§ 12/13 colonies (Georgia missing) sent 55 distinguished men
· Included Samuel Adams, John Adams, George Washington and Patrick Henry.
§ AR intercolonial frictions decreased due to after working hours.
o About the Continental Congress
§ Spanned for over 7 weeks
§ Was a consultative body and a convention rather than a congress.
· John Adams managed to sway colleagues to revolutionary course
· Had helped defeated by narrow margins, a proposal by moderates for a species of American home rule under British direction.
§ AR after debates Congress drew up several dignified papers
· Incl. Declaration of Rights.
· Appeals to other colonies, to king, and British people.
o The Congress’ creation of the Association
§ Called for the complete boycott of British goods.
· Incl. nonimportation, nonexportation, nonconsumption.
o HV were not yet calling for independence
· Had only attempted to repeal offensive taxes.
§ AR if colonial grievances were not fixed, then Congress would meet again in May 1775.
- HV Parliament rejects Congress’ petitions
o MW violators of the Association were tarred and feathered.
§ MW Muskets were gathered and men began to drill openly.
- British moves more troops
o April 1775 British Commander sent troops to Lexington and Concord.
§ Ordered to seize stores of colonial gunpowder and “rebel” leaders
· These “rebel” ringleaders were Sam Adams and John Hancock
o At Lexington the “minute men” refused to disperse fast enough and were met w/ shots that killed 8 and wounded more.
§ Was aka “Lexington Massacre”, but was not so much a battle
o British troops pushed to Concord, and were met w/ ready Americans.
§ Eventually regained control of Boston
§ British amounted to 300 casualties, some 70 killed.
Imperial Strength and Weakness
- Strengths
o Population odds of English to American were 3:1 against rebels
§ Odds of monetary and naval power also overwhelmingly favored mother country.
o Had a professional army of 50,000 men while America militia was somewhat populous yet poorly trained.
o George III had treasury to hire foreign soldiers
§ Ultimately employed 30,000 Germans
§ Germans that served for British were called Hessians
§ Also enrolled 50,000 American Loyalists and services of many natives
· Native Americans were unreliable fair-weather fighters, yet would eventually set to fire long stretches of frontier.
- Weaknesses
o Ireland, oppressed, was on edge of revolt
§ British troops had to be sent to watch it.
o France, bitter from recent defeat, was awaiting for an opportunity to backstab
o Had no able military generals like William Pitt
§ Had only stubborn George III and plaint (flexible) PM Lord North
o Most Britons had no desire to kill American cousins.
§ English Whig factions opposed Lord North’s Tories (a wing)
· Openly cheered American victories.
§ Believed that if George III triumphed, rule at home may become tyrannical.
· AR this greatly encouraged Americans that if they continue resistance long enough, Whigs might come into power.
o Incompetent generals
§ Soldiers were well-trained, but brutally treated.
· Harsh punishment for striking an officer
o Provisions were scarce and food was rancid and wormy
§ Was operating 3000 miles from home base and supplies.
§ Effective reinforcements could be easily met w/ delay and mishaps.
§ Military orders issued in London would be received months later
o Redcoats had to conquer Americans entirely
§ Restoring to pre 1763 status would be a victory for colonists.
o America’s geographical expanse was enormous
§ TF could not capture an urban nerve center to cripple all colonies
· B/c had no urban nerve center.
§ Were widely spread out, TF a city down would be a tiny dent
o American population growth was large and all were widely spread out
§ TF traded space for time.
American Pluses and Minuses
- Strengths
o Outstanding leadership
§ George Washington was a giant among men.
§ Benjamin Franklin was a master among diplomats.
o Open foreign aid eventually came from France
§ Many European officers were unemployed and in poverty
· TF volunteered for pay.
§ Notable French nobleman Marquis de Lafayette and his services secured further aid from France
o Were fighting defensively
§ TF odds favored the defender
o Enjoyed moral advantage that they were fighting for just cause.
o Historical odds were not impossible, as others have triumphed under greater odds
§ Greeks v. Persians, Swiss v. Austrians, Dutch v. Spaniards.
- Weaknesses
o Rebels were badly organized from war.
§ Had been fatally lacking in unity.
§ The Continental Congress, which directed the conflict, was full of debate and conflict.
· TF grew feebler as war dragged on.
· Had fought almost the entire war before adopting a written constitution: The Articles of Confederation 1781
§ Colonies each regarded themselves as sovereign and resented attempts of Congress to exercise its weak control.
§ Sectional jealousy appeared among appointment of military leaders.
· Some distrustful New Englanders almost preferred British officers to American from other sections.
o Economic difficulties
· Metallic money drained away
§ Congress were cautious not to tax.
· TF printed paper money in great amounts.
o Depreciated heavily.
· AR colonies issued depreciated paper money on their own.
o TF more confusion among colonies.
§ AR inflation of currency skyrocketed prices.
· Families of soldiers had the men/soldiers of their families leave
o TF debtors easily “repaid” their debts.
A Thin Line of Heroes
- Lack of arms
o Firearms only found in small amounts of households and were usually property of local militia
§ No gun factories; imported guns were very costly.
o AR 1/12 American militiamen reported for duty w/ own musket
§ Franklin had also seriously proposed using bows and arrows.
- AR French were needed for a source of firearms
- Lack of food
o Manufactured goods generally in short supply in agricultural America
o Clothing and shoes were scarce
§ In winters many soldiers had to go w/o food and/or clothes.
- Regiments were unreliable
o Received basic training and served for short terms in rebel armies.
§ HV could not v. professional British troops w/ bayonets.
§ TF would flee easily
o A few thousand regulars were whipped into shape
§ Notable was the organizational genius German Baron von Steuben.
- Involvement of blacks in the Revolutionary war.
o States had previously barred them from militia service.
§ HV eventually 5 thousand+ blacks enlisted in army
· Most from Northern colonies, where there were large numbers of free blacks.
· Some, notably Prince Whipple, would become military heroes
o Had also served on the British side.
§ 1775 royal governor Lord Dunmore issued proclamation promising freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined British.
· Virginia and Maryland tightened slave patrols, but many fled plantations for British.
o At war’s end, British kept word to some.
- Some had put profits before patriotism.
o Sold to British because they could pay in gold.
§ Speculators forced prices sky-high. Others made profits of 200% on army garb while soldiers were freezing at Valley Forge.
- AR only a select minority of colonists dedicated to cause of independence.
o Were the dedicated Patriots who bore burden of battle and risked defeat.
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