Chapter 8 America Secedes from the Empire
Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord
- AR call to arms
o 20,000 minute men to Boston and outnumbered the British
- 2nd Continental Congress
o Met in Philadelphia next month, May 10 1775
o All 13 colonies sent representatives this time.
§ HV still conservative and no defined desire for independence
· Only a desire to continue fighting so that king and Parliament could give in.
· TF drafted new appeals to British and king, only to be rejected
o AR anticipating rejection, delegates began to raise money and create army and navy.
Congress Drafts George Washington
- Selected George Washington to head hastily improvised army in attacking Boston
o Washington was one of members of Congress already in officer’s uniform.
- George Washington was not a military genius, but a great leader
o Was a dignified Virginia planter that never rose above rank of colonel
o Largest command was only 1200 men.
§ Would lose more battles than he won.
o HV radiated patience, courage, self-discipline and justice.
§ Was prepared to sacrifice life and people had trust in him.
- Congresses’ choice was a wise one
o Choice was largely political and not for his leadership reasons while others were already jealous and beginning to distrust New England army building.
§ Was from Virginia, most populous of colonies.
§ Man of wealth by both inheritance and marriage, TF could not be accused of seeking fortunes.
§ As an aristocrat, could be “relied on” to keep hierarchy in check
Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings
- Mixed signals from the Americans
o On one hand Americans were affirming loyalty to king and voicing desire to solve
o On other hand gathering up armies and shooting down British soldiers.
§ This continued for 14 months from April 1775 – July 1776
- Battle of Bunker Hill
o Tiny American force captured British troops in upper New York
§ Secured a priceless store of gunpowder and artillery for a siege of Boston
§ Then in June 1775 seized a hill (was Breed’s Hill, now Bunker Hill).
- From this hill would menace Boston.
§ British did not cut off Americans’ retreat route; instead faced bloody defeats by Americans until their gunpowder stre gave out.
- AR forced to abandon hill in disorder.
§ HV had already damaged a large part of British army
o MW Congress continues to make movements towards peace
§ Adopted the “Olive Branch Petition”
- Professed American loyalty to crown, begged king to prevent further hostilities.
- HV after Bunker Hill George III rejected all possibilities of peace
o Proclaimed in 1775 all colonies in rebellion.
o George III hires foreign soldiers
§ Arranged to hire thousands of German troops.
- 6 German princes involved needed money while George needed men
- b/c most of German soldiers from German principality of Hesse, Americans called all European soldiers Hessians
§ Americans mad that war took larger scale “outside of family”, esp involving those infamous for butchery.
- Hessians proved to be good soldiers mechanically, but were more interested in pay than duty.
o Eventually fled to America and remained there due to promises of land.
The Abortive Conquest of Canada
- British burns Portland Maine
- Rebels made divided attempt to invade Canada
o American leaders believed erroneously that conquered French were restive under British
§ TF believed successive attack would add 14th colony and would deprive British of a valuable base for striking at colonies.
§ HV also contradicted claim that Americans were only fighting defensively
- Invasion was close to success, but not entirely
o One invasion led by General Montgomery (formerly of British) captured Montreal then met General Arnold at Quebec
§ By then Arnold’s army was already suffering from lack of food supply
o Invasion of Quebec failed and able Montgomery killed while Arnold was severely wounded
§ AR Arnold led remnants up St. Lawrence River
§ MW French-Canadian leaders were generously treated by British in Quebec Act of 1774 and did not welcome anti-Catholic invaders.
- Bitter fighting continues
o MW Americans disclaim all desire for independence
§ MW British set fire to Norfolk Virginia, but in March two months later were forced to evacuate Boston
- AR took w/ them leading friends of king
§ MW in the south colonists won two victories in 1776
- One against Loyalists in Moore’s Creek Bridge NC, other against an invading British fleet in Charleston
Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense
- Americans continued to decline desire for independence
o Many Americans still considered to be part of transatlantic community.
§ MW colonial unity was poor and open rebellion was dangerous.
o HV Americans eventually shocked due to burning of Falmouth and Norfolk, and by hiring Hessians.
- The publication of Common Sense in 1776
o Author was radical Thomas Paine
o Argued that colonists should throw off inconsistency B/c nowhere ever did smaller kingdom control a larger one
Paine and the Idea of “Republicanism”
- Common Sense was very radical
o Called not only for independence but also for a new kind of political society, a republic.
§ In republic power from people and not from monarch.
§ Argued that all governors, senators, should derive authority from popular consent
o Was not the first person to think of republican form of government
§ Early philosophers had thought of idea in classical Greece, Rome. Were later revived in Renaissance and in 17th century England.
· HV did not fare well w/ British delicate balance of monarchs, nobility.
§ HV were popular among critics of monarch’s power.
§ MW Americans agreed w/ critics as they interpreted acts of monarch as a conspiracy to strip them of their liberties
o TF Paine’s ideas well accepted.
- Roots of a republican government already existed
o New England practiced a king of republicanism in democratic town meetings
o Popularly elected committees of correspondence during 1774 and 1775
o Absence of hereditary aristocracy and relative equality enjoyed by farmers
o Most Americans had also considered citizen “virtue” fundamental to any successful republican government.
§ That individuals in citizens must sacrifice self-interest for public good.
- Paine inspired others to view America of a place to be that republic.
- HV not all agreed w/ Paine’s very democratic approach to republicanism
o Some favored a “natural aristocracy”
§ Were more conservative republicans that feared zeal for liberty would overwhelm stability of social order.
Jefferson’s “Explanation” of Independence
- Members of the Philadelphia Congress eventually moved towards independence
o One month before declaration, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia argued that the united colonies should be independence states
§ AR after debate, motion was adopted July 2, 1776
§ TF as a “passing” of Lee’s resolution, formal “declaration” of independence written, and was technically all that was needed.
· Adams had already determined July 2 to be celebrated
o HV this important motion required explanation
§ Would encourage help from other British colonies, other nations, and rally resistance at home.
§ TF July 7th, Congress appointed Virginia lawyer, 33, Thomas Jefferson to explain Lee’s explanation.
§ AR Declaration of Independence formally approved by Congress on July 4, 1776
- The merits of the Declaration of Independence
o Gave his appeal universality by calling for “natural rights”, not just British rights.
§ Argued that king disrespected these rights, TF colonists justified in calling for independence.
o Then made a long list of tyrannous misdeeds of George III
§ Incl. dispensing trial by jury, abolishing valued laws, armies in peacetime, taxation w/o representation.
- AR of the Declaration of Independence
o Foreign aid was more concise, Patriots were not actual “rebels”, and all must hang together or they would die separately, like Franklin said.
§ Would inspire countless revolutionary movements against unlimited authorities
Patriots and Loyalists
- War of Independence was a war within a war
o Patriots (American rebels) fought both the Loyalists (colonials loyal to king) and British redcoats.
§ Loyalists aka “Tories” after dominant political factions in Britain
§ Patriots aka “Whigs”, after opposition factions in Britain
o Was a minority movement
§ Many colonists were neutral TF opposing sides fought for support of the majority
· Patriot military played a crucial role in this while British could only control the areas where it maintained a massive military presence
o Patriots took up the task of “political education”, sometimes coercively
o Also mercilessly harassed small British detachments
o Loyalists, about 16% of population.
§ Families often split over issue of independence
· Ben Franklin on Patriot side, his son on Loyalist side.
§ For generations loyalty was regarded as major virtue
· TF if king had triumphed, would be acclaimed patriots
· AR those of education and wealth remained loyal, more numerous among older generation.
o While younger people like Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry cried “give me liberty or give me death”.
· Incl. king’s officers and other beneficiaries of the crown, incl Anglican clergy.
o TF Loyalists were strongest where Anglican church was strongest, incl NYC, Charleston, Quaker PA, and NJ
§ While starving in Valley Forge, nearby PA farmers sold food for British gold.
o Though debt-burdened Anglican aristocrats became rebels in Virginia.
The Loyalist Exodus
- Persecution of Loyalists
o Before Declaration of Independence was relatively mild
§ Occassional tarring and feathering
o HV after Declaration, harsher methods prevailed and persecution was harsher
§ AR 80,000 Loyalists were driven out or fled, though 100,000 or so mild Loyalists permitted to stay.
· AR unoccupied estates sold to fund the war
- Actions of the radical Loyalists
o Approx. 50,000 Loyalists at one time or another bore arms for British
§ Others served as spies, angered the natives, and kept Patriots at home to protect families.
§ HV a major mistake of British was to not use them in battle
General Washington at Bay
- British evacuates Boston and concentrates on New York as base
o Splendid seaport, centrally located and many Loyalists
o British arrived with splendid fleet July 1776
§ George Washington was drastically outnumbered, outgeneraled and outmaneuvered that they narrowly managed to escape to Manhattan Island.
· The British went on to chase Americans until Washington led them to cross Hudson River to NJ, then to Delaware River and crossing it w/ last remnants of troops and w/ British at heels
o HV the British general Howe did not speedily crush American forces b/c he was unable and undersupplied
§ After crossing the Delaware River
· Managed to capture a thousand Hessians sleeping in Christmas
· Left a campfire ruse burning and damaged smaller British detachment in Princeton.
Burgoyne’s Blundering Invasion
- British officials attempt to cut off New England from rest of the states via capturing Hudson River Valley in 1777
o Main invading force under General Burgoyne would push down Lake Champlain route from Canada
o General Howe’s troops in NY could advance up Hudson and meet Burgoyne in Albany if required
§ A smaller fleet by Colonel St. Leger would come in from west.
- Ignored General Benedict Arnold
o After failed invasion of Quebec in 1775 had retreated to Lake Champlain 1776.
§ Had been pursued by British until they went farther south for British needed to first win control of lake.
· Lake was essential for carrying supplies while there are no roads
§ TF British began constructing vessels while Arnold managed to destroy every floatable vessel until his tiny flotilla finally destroyed
· HV had earned time and maybe the battle b/c British now forced to retire to Canada to return next year.
o Aka Arnold’s Naval Battle.
o AR Arnold prevented British from recapturing Ticonderoga
- General Burgoyne’s uneventful retreat
o Burdened by heavy baggage and many women
§ Progress was slow as American militiamen chased them
- General Howe’s tactics
o Expected to go up north via Hudson and join Burgoyne’s route. HV he went south to Philadelphia instead, the rebel capital.
§ Howe assumed he could destroy Washington’s army and leave path open for Burgoyne’s attack.
o HV Washington, who was focusing on NY, now went to Philadelphia and was defeated in two battles Brandywine Creek and Germantown (1777)
§ AR Howe settled down comfortably in Philadelphia while Burgoyne was struggling north.
o TF Washington retired to winter quarters in Valley Forge
§ MW men trained into professional army by Prussian drillmaster Baron von Steuben.
- America secures important victory
o Burgoyne continued to slowly head south and was soon trapped by General Arnold.
o MW Americans had driven back St. Leger’s force in Oriskany.
§ TF Burgoyne did not receive reinforcements and forced to surrender entire command at Saratoga on October 17, 1777 to American general Gates
o Was an important decisive victory.
§ Revived faltering colonial cause
§ AR also made it possible to receive foreign aid from France
· Was essential for ensuring American independence
Strange French Bedfellows
- French were eager to take revenge against British and inflame war.
o Thought that if British lost colonies, France could regain former power lost from Seven Years’ War
- French interests
o “Bored aristocracy” developed liberal ideas via Rousseau and intrigued about American liberal ideas.
o Other French officials interested for French to regain power.
§ TF after Lexington in April 1775, secretly supplied Americans w/ firearms, gunpowder through a sham company.
· AR 90% of gunpowder used by Americans in first 2 ½ yrs from French
§ HV was all secret or else British might declare war and France was not ready to fight.
· Also feared Americans might lose and proclaim desire to patch up differences.
§ HV after Declaration of Independence 1776 and victory in Saratoga, French had their faith in colonies reaffirmed.
- MW British offered home rule after humiliation at Saratoga 1777
o Was everything Americans asked for except independence.
o French fears reunification b/w British and Americans
§ French King Louis XVI reluctant to intervene
· Saw grave dangers in aiding American openly.
o HV ministers argued hostilities were inevitable and if British reunified w/ Americans could join w/ them to seize French sugar islands.
§ TF French in 1778 offered Americans treaty of alliance.
· Promised everything British offered plus independence.
o Americans reluctantly accepted it b/c they were under fire, but were bound to a Roman Catholic power.
The Colonial War Becomes a World War
- Countries that the British oppressed now rise
o England and France first shot in Lexington, 1778.
o Soon Spanish and Holland entered war against British in 1779
§ Spanish and French fleets together outnumbered Britain and British islands were at two times, at mercy of hostile warships.
o MW weak naval powers of Europe who suffered from Britain’s dominance joined
§ 1780 imperious Catherine the Great of Russia organized the “Armed Neutrality” and fought in passive hostility towards British.
o War spread to South America, the Carribean and Asia.
- British overwhelmed by many enemies.
o TF Americans deserved credit for keeping Revolution going until 1778, but was truly the war’s expansion into world war that helped them.
§ Also, 1778 – 1783 French provided guns, money, equipment and about ½ of America’s regular armed forces and almost all of naval strength.
- French commands the seas
o Before British could dominant colonial seas.
§ HV now French had powerful fleets in waters, (primarily to protect sugar islands) in a position to jeopardize British’s line of supply.
§ TF British evacuated Philadelphia and concentrated on NY.
· Retreating British attacked by Washington at Monmouth NJ,
o Many more died from heatstroke, 1/3 Hessians deserted
o HV battle indecisive, British went to NY w/ Washington in the area, enclosing them in.
Blow and Counterblow
- French and Americans’ alliance
o 1780 Summer French arrived w/ powerful army under Rochambeau in Newport, Rhode Island.
§ Were met w/ suspicion and minor bloodshed.
o HV soon came parties and good relations, along with preparations made for allied attack on New York.
- Benedict Arnold betrays
o Felt that his valuable services were not fully appreciated.
§ TF plotted w/ British to sell out key stronghold West Point, which commanded Hudson River, for $6300 and an officer’s commission.
· When plot was detected, he fled to British.
- MW British attack from south
o Where there were many Loyalists.
§ Georgia overrun in 1778-1779
§ Charleston, South Carolina fell in 1780.
· Was devastating to Americans, heavier loss in relation to existing strength than that of Burgoyne was to British.
o Carolinas’ intensified warfare
§ Patriots fought Loyalist neighbors.
§ HV American riflemen soon defeated British detachments in King’s Mountain and Cowpens.
§ MW 1781 Carolina campaign, General Greene (the “Fighting Quaker”) stood then retreated and exhausted foe General Cornwallis
· TF he lost battles but won campaigns and managed to clear most of Georgia and South Carolina of British troops.
The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier
- Conflict on the frontier
o George III’s Native American allies were busy with torch and tomahawk.
- The “blood year” 1777 on the frontier
o Two nations of Iroquois joined Americans while four (incl Mohawks) others joined British.
§ Were urged by Mohawk chief Brant, a convert to Anglicanism, who believed that a victorious British would restrain American expansion into the West.
§ TF British and Brant ravaged large areas of backcountry Pennsylvania and NY until checked by an American force in 1779.
· AR British Iroquois forced to sign Treaty of Fort Stanwix
- First treaty b/w Americans, natives
- Native Americans ceded most of their land.
§ HV even in wartimes, pioneers continued west.
· Where British were very vulnerable in Illinois country
- Held only scattered posts captured from French
· George Clark thought of seizing these forts by surprise.
- AR seized 3 forts in succession, and was arguably important factor in forcing British to cede region north of Ohio River to the US during peace table in Paris.
- America’s navy laying brilliant foundations
o Led by daring officers, most famous incl. young Scotsman John Paul Jones.
§ Destroyed British merchant shipping and carried wars to waters around British islands.
o Most damaging of ships in navy were swift privateers
§ Were privately owned armed ships (legalized privates)
· Specially authorized by Congress to prey on shipping.
§ AR American privateers captured 600 British prizes while British warships captured about the same amount.
§ TF bought in urgently needed gold, harassed enemy, raised morale
· AR insurance rates skyrocketed and British shippers/manufacturers put more pressure on Parliament to end war on honorable terms
Yorktown and the Final Curtain
- War enters dark period in 1780-1781
o Inflation of currency went up
o Government was virtually bankrupt and declared would repay many debts at rate of 2.5 on the dollar.
§ MW despair prevailed, sense of unity withered
- HV British General Cornwallis falls into trap
o After futile operations in Virginia, fell to Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown to await seaborne reinforcements.
§ Assumed British controlled the seas, but this time was one of few when it wasn’t.
§ TF French Admiral de Grasse blockaded British at sea by sea after defeating British fleet while Washington traveled from Chesapeake to NY and combined w/ Rochambeau’s French army to attack British at land.
· AR Cornwallis surrendered entire force of 7000 men October 19, 1781.
· French had provided all sea power and half of land troops.
o Lord North thought of surrender at news, HV George III stubbornly continued
§ British still had 32000 troops in America, of 54 k in N America
· TF Washington returned to NY with watchful eye
o MW fighting continued savagely in South.
§ “No quarter for Tories”
§ Washington helped keep cause alive
Peace at Paris
- Many Britons ready to come to terms despite George III’s eagerness to continue
o Suffered heavy reverses in India, West Indies, lost island of Minorca Mediterranean
o MW Lord North’s ministry collapsed March 1782 and a Whig ministry replaced Lord North
§ Temporarily ended George III personal rule.
- MW three American peace negotiators gathered at Paris
o Benjamin Franklin – aging but cunning
o John Adams – unyielding
o John Ray of New York, deeply suspicious of Old World
o Were all ordered to make no separate peace and to consult w/ French allies at all stages of negotiations
§ HV three knew instructions written from a subservient Congress w/ French Foreign Office guiding the pen.
- French were between a rock and a hard place
o Had asked Spain to join war on its side by promising Gibraltar
§ A British held naval base at south of Spain
§ HV Gibraltar repelled assaults by French and Spanish
o Spanish also coveted immense trans-Allegheny area where Americans were already settling.
- French was eager to smash Britain’s empire
o Wanted an independent US not in the action.
§ TF aimed to keep new republic east of Allegheny Mountains
§ Thought that this was easier to manage and promoting French interests.
· French was paying heavy price for American’s independence, and wanted money’s worth.
- HV John Jay unwilling to comply w/ French interests.
o Thought they were about to betray America’s trans-Allegheny interests to satisfy those of Spain
§ TF secretly made agreements with British
· AR British were eager to entice one of enemies from alliance and speedily came to terms w/ Americans.
o TF preliminary peace 1782 signed, final peace the next year.
- Treaty of Paris 1783
o British formally recognized independence of United States
§ Granted boundaries of Mississippi on west, Great Lakes to north, Spanish Florida to south.
· Florida was recently captured from British and would not be part of America until 1819.
§ MW Yankees, now divorced from empire, could retain share in priceless fisheries of Newfoundland.
· Angered Canadians.
o Americans had to yield certain things
§ Loyalists were not to be persecuted and Congress was to recommend confiscated Loyalist property be restored.
o HV America vowed to put no lawful obstacles in way of collecting for debts long owed to British creditors.
§ AR British unhappy w/ assurances regarding Loyalists and debts.
A New Nation Legitimized
- Britain’s terms were very liberal.
o Enormous trans-Allegheny area thrown in.
§ B/c British tried to seduce America from French alliance.
§ Whig ministry wanted to reopen old trade channels and prevent future wars over trans-Allegheny region.
§ Was not followed by successors
- French were relieved
o Freed itself from embarrassing promises to Spanish crown.
o Though disturbed by lonewolf American ally.
- Americans were only beneficiaries of war
o French savored sweet revenge but soon borke to bankruptcy and revolution.
o British were already battered and beaten.
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