Chapter 22 The Ordeal of Reconstruction
The Problems of Peace
- Jefferson Davis
o Rebel leaders finally pardoned by President Johnson 1868.
o Congress would not remove remaining civil disabilities until 30 years later.
- Charleston and Richmond damaged badly
- Great economic depression, inflation everywhere
o Transportation system broken
- Agriculture hopelessly crippled.
o Would produce as large a cotton crop as in 1870, and many from new acreage in SW
- Aristocrats’ investments in slaves gone.
- MW many white southerners remain defiant.
Freedmen Define Freedom
- Freedom unevenly spread in Confederacy.
o Many freed then enslaved
o Mixed responses from the slaves themselves
- Emancipation strengthened the black family.
o “Slave marriages” for personal and pragmatic reasons.
o Sometimes whole communities moved
§ 1878-1880 25,000 blacks “Exodusters” from Texas, LA, MS to Kansas
- Church focus of black community.
o As slaves worshiped by whites
o Now formed own churches and ministers.
§ 150,000 black Baptist Church 1850 > 500,000 by 1870
§ African Episcopal Church X 4 from 100,000 in firs decade.
o Organizations helped blacks protect newly won freedom.
- Established schools for education.
o Accepted aid of Northern white women sent by American Missionary Association.
The Freedmen’s Bureau
- Congress > Freedmen’s Bureau 1865
o Intended to be primitive welfare agency
o Provided food, clothing, med, edu to freedmen and white refugees
§ To solve problem of unskilled blacks in life.
o Headed by Union General Oliver O. Howard > president of Howard University in DC.
o Successes > 200,000 blacks how to read
§ Blacks enthusiastic to read the Word of God.
o HV little land went into blacks’ hands.
§ Local admin collaborated w/ planters in expelling blacks from towns, making them sign labor contracts to work for former masters.
§ White south resented bureau and Andrew Johnson who shared white-supremacist views, repeatedly try to kill it, expired in 1872.
Johnson: The Tailor President
- Johnson had humble beginnings, self-made man.
o Tennessee Congressman
o Support from the North but not South when he refused to secede with his own state.
- Lincoln’s Union Party 1864 needed support from War Democrats and pro-Southerners TF Johnson, a Democrat, was chosen.
o Champion of states’ rights and the Constitution.
- Was a misfit
o A southerner who did not understand the North, a Tennessean who had earned the distrust of the South, a Democrat who was never accepted by Republicans, and rejected by Republicans in White House and uncompromising.
Presidential Reconstruction
- Political war over reconstruction begun before shooting ended.
- Abraham Lincoln believed that the southern states never legally withdrawn from Union.
- “10 percent” Reconstruction plan.
o Decreed that state could be reintegrated into Union when 10 percent of its voters in election of 1860 taken an oath of allegiance.
§ Opposition from Republicans who feared restoration of planter aristocracy would mean possible re-enslavement of blacks.
- AR Republicans > Wade-Davis Bill
o Req. 50% of state’s voters take oath of allegiance and demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation
o Lincoln “pocket-vetoed” this bill by refusing to sign it.
§ Republicans refused to recognize state of LA are its admittance under the 10% plan.
o Revealed deep differences b/w Lincoln and Congress.
- Unlike Lincoln, Republicans insist that seceders left the Union.
o Viewed the south as “conquered provinces”
o Majority moderate Republican group tended to agree w/ Lincoln
§ Though states to be restored on Congress’ terms not president’s
o Minority radical group believed in revenge.
§ South social structure uprooted, planters punished, blacks protected by federal power.
- Radical Republicans hoped Johnson, racist, would share their desire.
o HV Johnson agreed w/ Lincoln that seceded states never legally outside Union.
o Recognized 10% plan, issued own Reconstruction proclamation.
§ Disfranchised certain leading Confeds.
o Called for special state conventions which were req. to repeal ordinances of secession, repudiate all Confed debts, and ratify slave-freeing 13th Amendment.
§ States that complied would be readmitted.
- MW pardoned aristocrats who begged.
o Bolstered via planter elite, rebellious states in second half of 1865 began to organize gov.
The Baleful Black Codes
- One of first acts of new Southern regimes sanctioned by Johnson = Black Codes
o Regulated affairs of emancipated blacks like slave codes.
§ Mississippi and soon other Southern states.
§ Ranged in severity, Mississippi most severe, GA most lenient.
o Aimed to ensure stable, subservient labor force
§ Dire penalties, fines which committed them to work for same employer for one year.
§ Often tied blacks to labor contracts.
- All codes forbade blacks to serve on jury, some barred blacks from renting/leasing land, no vote anywhere.
- Revokation would still mean blacks lacking capital offering only labor.
- Made the North look bad
Congressional Reconstruction
- Ex-rebels elected to Congress
o Tained by “lost cause” association.
o Worst of all was Alexander Stephens, ex-vice president of Confederacy.
- Previously South had been “out” in 1861 – 1865, enjoyed relative freedom.
o Passed legislation that favored the North, incl. Morrill Tariff, the Pacific Railroad Act, and Homestead Act.
- Blacks now counted as 5/5ths of person, means 12 more votes in Congress and 12 more presidential electoral votes.
- Republicans good reason to fear they might lose power.
o Southerners might join hands w/ Democrats in North and win control of White House.
o Could spread the Black codes.
o Would lower tariffs, reroute transcontinental railroad, repealing free-farm Homstead Act, and even repudiating national debt (what would this do)
- MW Johnson deeply disturbed when he announced 1865 rebellious states had satisfied his conditions and in his view Union restored.
Johnson Clashes with Congress
- Conflict when president vetoed bill extending life of the controversial Freedmen’s Bureau.
- AR Republicans passed Civil Rights Bill which conferred on blacks privilege of American citizenship and struck at the Black Codes.
o HV Johnson vetoed bill on constitutional grounds, but managed to override veto.
- TF Congress increasingly assumed dominant role in government.
- Republicans attempted to make Civil Rights Bill into the Fourteenth Amendment
o Feared Southerners might one day win control and repeal hated law.
o Proposed amendment sent to states in 1866
§ 1) conferred civil rights, incl citizenship but not franchise on freedmen
§ 2) reduced proportionately the representation of a state in Congress and the Electoral College if it denied blacks the vote.
§ 3) disqualified from federal and state office former Confederates who as federal officeholders had once sworn to “support the Constitution of the US”
§ 4) guaranteed the federal debt while repudiating all Confed Debt
- Radical faction disappointed that 14th Amendment did not grant right to ote.
o HV all Republicans agreed no state welcomed back w/o first ratifying 14th Amendment.
- Johnson advised Southern states to reject it
o All of “sinful eleven” except TN spurned (rejected) the amendment.
Swinging ‘Round the Circle with Johnson
- Root of controversy between Congress and president was “10 %” governments that passed most stringent Black Codes.
o Congress attempted to pass Freedmen’s Bureau and Civil Rights Bill to temper it.
§ Both vetoed by Johnson.
- MW important congressional elections of 1866 coming up.
o Went around nation to speak in support of his views.
- Famous “swing ‘round the circle” began in 1866, a “serious comedy of errors”
o Accused radicals in Congress of planning large scale antiblack riots and murder in the South.
- AR Republicans obtained more than 2/3 majority in both houses of Congress after reelection.
Republican Principles and Programs
- Republicans now had veto-proof Congress and virtually unlimited control of Reconstruction.
o HV moderates v. radicals still.
- Radicals lead by Charles Sumner who labored not only for black freedom but racial equality.
- In House most powerful radical was Thaddeus Stevens
o Had defended runaway slaves in court w/o fee and insisted on burial in black cemetery.
§ Hated by rebellious white Southerners.
o Leading figure on Joint (House-Senate) Committee on Reconstruction
- Radical Republicans attempted to bring drastic social/econ transformation in South.
o HV moderate Republicans champion of states’ rights and self-government, preferred policies that restrained the states from abridging citizens’ rights
§ Majority moderates had the upper hand.
o Both groups agreed on necessity to enfranchise black voters.
Reconstruction by the Sword
- In backdrop of race riots in Southern cities, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act 1867.
o Divided South into 5 military districts, each commanded by a Union general.
o Temporarily disfranchised many former Confeds.
- Added more stringent conditions for readmission of seceded states.
o Required to ratify the 14th Amendment and give former slaves rights as citizens.
§ Also to make them guarantee blacks have the vote.
§ But only there, did not provide for federal support of education.
o Purpose of moderates was to create an electorate in Southern states that would vote those states back into Union on acceptable terms and free the fed gov from direct responsibility of black rights.
- Radical Republicans worried after states readmitted, would amend their constitution to withdraw ballot from blacks.
o AR must incorporate black suffrage in federal Constitution.
- Goal was achieved by 15th Amendment
o Passed in Congress 1869 and ratified by required number of states in 1870
- Military Reconstruction in South mocked functions of president as commander in chief and set up martial regime of dubious legality.
o Supreme Court already ruled in Ex parte Milligan (1866) military tribunals could not try civilians, even during wartime, in areas where civil courts were open.
§ Where peacetime military rule contrary to Constitution.
§ HV for time being Supreme Court avoided offending Republican Congress.
- By 1870 all of them had reorganized governments and had been accorded full rights.
o When federal troops left a state, its gov would pass in hands of “Redeemers” or “Home Rule” regimes, Democratic.
§ 1877 when last federal musket removed from state politics, “solid” Democratic South congealed.
No Women Voters
- Women played prominent role in prewar abolitionist movement and pointed out that both women/blacks lacked basic civil rights.
- During war, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony temporarily suspended own demands and worked for black emancipation.
o Woman’s Loyal League petitioned asking Congress to pass constitutional amendment prohibiting slavery.
- Campaigned against 14th Amendment against Frederick Douglas who long supported woman suffrage but believed this was “the Negro’s hour”
o Lost battle of 15th Amendment to add word “gender” to “denial of vote on basis of race, color, or previous condition of servitude”.
- 50 more years to go before suffrage.
The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South
- Presidents Lincoln, Johnson proposed to give ballot to gradually selected blacks who qualified for it through ed, property or military service.
- TF 14th Amendment fell short of guaranteeing the right to vote.
- In 15th Amendment, northern blacks denied right to vote.
- After voting rights, black men organized politically
o Union League, originally pro-Union league in North
o Assisted by Northern blacks, freedmen turned League into educating members in civic duties, campaigned for Republican candidates.
§ Soon to incl. building black churches, schools, etc.
- Black women also obtained political roles.
o Parades and rallies in early years of Reconstruction.
o Assemble mass meetings in new black churches.
o Constitutional Conventions throughout South in 1867
- MW black men elected as delegates to the state constitutional conventions held greater political authority.
o Backbone of black political community.
o Sat down w/ whites to hammer out new state constitutions, incl. universal male suffrage.
- HV no subsequent elections had black governors or majorities in state senates, but black political participation expanded a lot in Reconstruction.
- 1868-1876 14 black congressmen and two black senators Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce.
o Also blacks had other political roles.
- Called freedmen’s white allies “scalawags” and “carpetbaggers”
o “scalawags” southerners who cooperated w/ Reconstruction governments
§ often former Unionists, Whigs
o “carpetbaggers” northerners had come to South to seek personal power and profit.
§ Former Union soldiers and Northern businessmen, pros who wanted to modernize the “New South”
- Radical legislatures passed much desirable legislation, intro’d many badly needed reforms.
o Adequate public schools.
o Tax systems streamlined
o Public works launched
o Property rights guaranteed to women.
- Many reforms retained by all-white “Redeemer” governments that later returned to power.
- HV also much corruption in radical governments
o Clear in SC and LA where promoters and pocket-padders used blacks as pawns
o “Black and white” legislatures purchased “legislative supplies” such “stationary” including hams, perfumes, etc.
§ Also perpetrated in the North.
o Inc. Boss Tweed’s New York.
The Ku Klux Klan
- “Invisible Empire of the South”
o Against success and ability of blacks founded in TN, 1866
- Used intimidation and, if did not fright, fought.
- Many white “carpetbaggers” were quick to take the hint and shunned the polls.
o Stubborn ones flogged even murdered.
- AR Congress passed Force Acts of 1870 and 1871
o Federal troops employed but by this time Invisible Empire already done work of intimidation.
§ Continued in disguise.
- MW white South for many decades openly flouted 14th, 15th Amendments.
o Wholesale disfranchisement of blacks started in 1890 achieved by intimidation, fraud, trickery.
- Including literacy tests admin’ed unfairly to blacks.
Johnson Walks the Impeachment Plank
- Radical Republicans attempted to impeach President Johnson altogether where president pro tempore of Senate (radical “Bluff Ben” Wade) would become president.
- AR Tenure of Office Act.
o Passed over Johnson’s veto
o New law required the president to secure consent of Senate before removing appointees once they have been approved by that body.
§ One purpose was to protect secretary of war, Edwin M. Stanton (though loyal to Johnson, was secretly a spy for radicals)
- HV Stanton dismissed 1868
o TF radicals could begin impeachment proceedings.
o House largely voted to impeach Johnson for “high crimes and misdeanors”
A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson
- Radical-led Senate now to try Johnson on charges.
o House conducted the prosecution.
- Johnson argued Tenure of Office Act unconstitutional and fired Stanton to merely put a test case before Supreme Court.
- MW radicals Benjamin F. Butler and Thaddeus Stevens hard time building compelling case for impeachment.
- When day for Senate voting, by one vote failed to remove Johnson (req. 2/3)
- MW fears of creating destabilizing precedent and opposition to abusing checks and balances.
o Where Wade disliked by many members of business community for high tariff.
- MW Johnson indicated through attorney that he would stop obstructing Republican policies in return for remaining in office.
o TF nation avoided dangerous precedent that would have weakened one of three branches of government.
The Purchase of Alaska
- Now Johnson’s admin, now largely reduced to figurehead, good in foreign relations.
o Russians 1867 in mood to sell Alaska.
- Had overextended themselves in North America
- Likely event of another war w/ Britain, would probably lose defenseless northern province to sea-dominant British.
· MW Alaska “furred out”, a growing econ liability.
o MW preferred America to any other purchaser as they wanted to strengthen Republic as barrier against ancient enemy, Britain.
- 1867 Secretary of State William Seward signed treaty that transferred Alaska to US for $7.2 mil
o HV America of the time was economy-minded and anti-expansionist.
- Congress sanctioned the purchase.
o Russia alone among the powers friendly to North during Civil War.
- Felt they could not offend good friend.
o Also territory rumored to have lots of resources.
The Heritage of Reconstruction
- Southerners resented upending of their social and racial system, political empowerment of blacks and insult of fed intervention of local affairs.
o HV was expected, and was in fact milder than what was expected.
§ Most Republicans had no clear picture of federal policies at war’s end.
- Republicans wanted to protect freed slaves and promote fortunes of Republican party.
o Reconstruction conferred only benefits of blacks and extinguished Republican party in South for nearly 100 years.
- Moderate Republicans never fully appreciated extensive effort necessary to make freed slaves completely independent citizens, or know lengths Southern whites would preserve system of racial dominance.
0 comments:
Post a Comment