Colonial Times
- Puritans considered Native Americans (NAs) to be part of the “wilderness” = Satan
- Farming, lumbering and community centers by British settlers competed for land with the NAs
- Pocahontas at the age of 17, kidnapped by Jamestown colonists and held as a hostage to discourage Indian attacks.
o Eventually married colonist John Rolfe and went to England.
o Baptized and took the Christian name Lady Rebecca and was a “big hit” in London.
o Died of smallpox at age of 22 when she was still in England.
- King Philip’s War 1675 – 1676
o New England natives united under Metacom, more commonly referred to as “King Philip” in a war to push back the colonials.
o Half the New England settlements were destroyed before King Philip was killed and the rebellion ended.
o Colonial population and New England’s economy set back two generations.
§ A great deal of mistrust of NAs followed.
- Major cause of Bacon’s Rebellion was Indian resistance to increase settlement on the frontier.
- After the First Great Awakening, there was the emergence of the Romantic Movement and the idea of “The Noble Savage” emerges. Increase in missionary work.
Pre-Revolutionary Times
- Most NAs find themselves on the wrong side of the French & Indian War (1756 – 1763). Mistrust increases.
- Pontiac’s Rebellion strains relations further.
- Proclamation of 1763 issued by George III in effort to reduce NA anger (as well as British colonial administrative costs) at increasing white settlement trans-Appalachia. Colonists were angered instead.
Revolutionary Period
- In the Amer. Revolution, NAs found themselves on the losing side again as many sided with the British (NAs sided w/ British because of their Proclamation of 1763) – this further increased tension w/ the colonists.
- Northwest Ordinance of 1787 – Congress declared that Indian lands were not to be invaded or disturbed. State government resist federal efforts as they are more interested in increasing settlement and representing the interests of the frontiersmen.
Post-Revolutionary Period
- After Revolution, land-hungry Amer. Passed Appalachian Mts. Into the “northwest” (Ohio, IL, Indiana, Wisconsin, MI).
o NA resistance increased.
- After KY militiamen burned several villages in 1786, full-scale war broke out.
o Militias and US army routed on 3 separate occasions, losing 918 men to 61 Indian dead.
o 1794 Congress appropriate $1 million to better equip the army and sent Gen Anthony Wayne who finally and decisively defeated the NAs at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
§ NAs forced to cede 2/3 of present day Ohio to white settlers.
- Jefferson = assimilationist. He encourages the NAs to abandon nomadic and traditional lifestyles and to assimilate into American culture. This would open additional lands to settlers.
- Missionary societies set up to help assimilation – “Christianize and civilize” them.
- Beginning in 1790s Federal government recognized tribes as separate nations and agreed to acquire land from them only through formal treaties.
o Just as many treaties were broken.
- 1793 Congress appropriates $20,000 to promote literacy along w/ agricultural and vocational skills.
- Cherokees adopt written language (Sequoia), legal code and written constitution.
o Some became well off cotton planters w/ Black slaves.
- Cherokees, Creeks, Chocktaws, Chicksaws, and Seminoles became known as the 5 Civilized Tribes for their assimilation efforts.
War of 1812
- Out west this war was primarily anti-Indian. Frontiersmen convinced that the British have been supplying Indians with weapons and encouraging them to attack Americans.
- Tecumseh and his brother “the Prophet” attempted to create an Indian Confederacy to resist encroachment of whites.
- 1811, Battle of Tippecanoe – William Henry Harrison, Gov. of Indian Territory marches on Tecumseh’s HQ. The Shawnees were routed. Harrison becomes national hero on the road to the White House (“Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!”)
- After Tippecanoe, Tecumseh joins alliance w/ the Brits and is killed at the Battle of Thames near Toronto.
- Abandoned by British allies at end of war, NAs forced to cede large tracts of land to advancing Americans.
o Once again on losing side of war.
Jacksonian Era
- Jackson committed to western expansion, proponent of forced removal of NAs.
o Considered resettlement to be most humane solution since white expansionism was unstoppable and often violent.
- Resettlement was a policy begun by Monroe
- 1817 AJ moves into Spanish Flordia under presidential commission to stop cross border raiders.
o Carries out instructions with vengeance and exceeds instructions.
o Destroyed Seminole villages, hangs 2 NA chiefs in addition to driving out the Spanish Gov. and hanging 2 Brit traders which helped the Indians.
- Latter causes major international incident.
- 1830 Indian Removal Act forced resettlement of many thousands of NAs. By 1835 most Eastern tribes had reluctantly complied.
- 1831 Cherokee v. GA where Cherokees challenged a GA state law requiring them to migrate. Supreme Court rules Cherokee were not a foreign nation with the right to sue in Federal Court (Marshall presided over, reduced state power)
- 1832 Worcester v. GA – a separate case from Cherokee Nation v. GA, the Supreme Court ruled that laws of GA had no force within boundaries of Cherokee territory. In a clash between state’s laws and federal courts, AJ sides with GA saying “John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it.” – There follows a split in the leadership of the Cherokee with some advocating resettlement, others advocating defiance.
- 1836 Bureau of Indian Affairs created to assist resettled tribes. Sadly, it becomes better known for corruption, pro-settlement viewpoints, and heavy-handed actions against the NA.
- 1838 Trail of Tears – the US Army forced 15,000 Cherokees to leave GA. 4000 die on the way to new Indian Territory in Oklahoma.
- By the end of the 1840s, Most of the Indians in the Eastern US were gone ; either dead or resttled.
Western Movement
- Manifest Destiny, “land hunger”, gold and greed encourages relentless push westward. Building of the Transcontinental RR accelerates the process.
o Destruction of buffalo to feed RR workers and to destroy major source of food for Indians was a deliberate process.
§ 1840 approx. 40,000,000 million buffalo/bison on the Plains.
§ 1875 only 1 million left.
§ 1893 less than 1000 buffalo left.
o Indians were more starved into submission than out-fought.
- Homestead Act – 1862 offered 160 acres of free land to anyone who settled and improved upon land for a period of 5 years. (more information in Post “The Homestead Act”
- Frederick Jackson Turner’s “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” echoed US Census Bureau’s declaration that the frontier was closed/settled. Turner argued that the frontier played a unique part in American culture and identity, promoted forward thinking individualism and the independent of individuals.
Indian Wars
- Sand Creek CO – Massacre of 133 Cheyenne men, women and children.
- Little Big Horn 1876 – troubles began when miners violated a treaty keeping the Black Hills of SD off limits to whites.
o Custer went into to pacify (actually attack) NAs.
o 2500 Sioux and Cheyenne led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse wiped out Custer’s force of 212.
§ Worst defeat of US army up to that point in history. Put a huge damper in nation’s centennial celebrations.
- Chef Joseph – Nez Perce Indians of Oregon courageous effort to lead his tribe to safety in Canada and ended in defeat and surrender 1877 – “I will fight no more forever”
- Wounded Knee 1890 – final tragedy of Indian Wars – Over 200 primarily unarmed NAs gunned down in this famous massacre.
o Most famous quote – “The only good Indians I ever saw were dead” – more well known as the “the only good Indian is a dead Indian” by Gen. Philip Sheridan.
- Ghost Dance was last effort of NAs to resist US domination.
o Was a sad and rather pathetic spiritual cult movement in which desperate Indians got themselves into a trans-like state through dance.
o Believed that in this state, Indians could no longer be hurt by White Men and their guns.
§ Obviously wrong.
o However, Ghost dance scared whites since it seemed to be encouraging Indian resistance to the reservation movement.
§ During this stressful period that Wounded Knee occurred.
Post Civil War Reformers and Reforms
- Helen Hunt Jackson wrote A Century of Dishonor (1881) – a highly sympathetic book highlighting injustices done to NAs. Influences more humanitarian approach to plight of NAs.
- Carlisle Indian School (1879) – “Kill the Indian and save the man” was the school’s motto.
o Indian children separated from their families, tribe, and given a formal education to inculcate white values and Christianity.
- Dawes Severalty Act (1887)
o Ironically designed by reformers to help Natives to “walk the white man’s road” (assimilation).
§ Was felt that tribal loyalties were holding back the transition from a “civilized” citizen.
o Broke up tribal unites and gave individual families land which previously had been owned in hopes of turning them into good independent farmers.
§ Excess land sold off to whites.
o However many Indians, not wanting to be farmers or not understanding the concept of land ownership, sold their lands.
- By 1900, Indians had lost 50% of the land they had held just two decades earlier.
o Citizenship promised to those who stayed on land for 25 years.
o However, policy was in the best of intentions, but still a disaster.
- Indian Reorganization Act (1924)
o FINALLY as part of FDR’s New Deal.
o In partial recognition of failure of its policy of assimilation, the Federal government granted US citizenship to all NAs.
§ Reestablished the tribal organizations and tribal ownership of land.
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