Effects of War
French and Indian War (1754-1763)
· Long-term causes
· Immediate effects of the war
o Conflicting British and French interests in the Ohio River Valley, Ft. Duquesne.
§ French established forts in Ohio River Valley to halt westward growth of British.
§ Governor named George Washington to lead small militia who, after a small initial victory, surrendered to superior force of French and Indian allies.
· Impact during war
o Albany Plan of Union where seven colonies met and adopted a plan by Benjamin Franklin which provided for an intercolonial government.
§ Political union
§ Designed for recruiting troops and collecting taxes from colonies
· But LARGELY FAILED because each colony too jealous of own taxation powers to accept the plan and never took effect.
§ Was a precedent for more revolutionary congresses later.
· Effects after the war
o Effects for British:
§ Unchallenged supremacy in North America.
§ Est. it as dominant naval power in world
§ American colonies no more threat from French, Spanish and Indian allies.
o End of “salutary neglect”
§ British came with low opinion of colonial military effort. Convinced that colonies were unable and unwilling to defend frontiers.
§ Colonial view: proud of record in all four wars and were not impressed w/ British troops.
o Reorganization of the British
§ Very costly -- $3 million in debt
§ Had a larger military force and larger frontier to gain.
§ King George aimed to solve Britain’s domestic financial problems.
o After Pontiac’s Rebellion against the colonial settlements (Indians angered at growing western movement and refusal for British to offer gifts). British sent British troops to quell rebellion, adding onto the burden.
§ Led to the Proclamation of 1763 as measure for stabilizing western frontier.
§ Greater conflict between views of Americans and British.
· Americans saw that they rightfully won the land.
o In general led to the great conflicting view – British thought that the colonies were unable and unwilling to defend, Americans thought they earned it.
· Imperial policies of George III and Lord Grenville.
§ Sugar Act – duties on foreign sugar = stricter enforcing of Navigation Laws to stop smuggling.
§ Quartering Act
§ Stamp Act – first direct collection of taxes
· Patrick Henry – Stamp Act Congress
· Political organization in Stamp Act Congress.
· Sons and Daughters of Liberty, secret organization intimnidating tax agents.
· Boycotts.
§ Repeal of stamp act via Declaratory Act.
· Declared that Parliament to make laws for colonies in “all cases whatsoever”.
§ Townshend Acts new, indirect, cheap taxes. Used to pay crown officials in colonies and made them independent of colonial assemblies.
· Provided for search of homes in a writ of assistance rather than judge’s search warrant.
· Dickinson in Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania agreed that duties were a form of taxation and there should be no tax w/o rep in English Law.
· James Otis and Samuel Adams – Massachusetts Circular Letter.
o Urged resistance to petition.
· Repealed later.
§ Acts are now meant to both pay back debts and to punish them for not recognizing that mercantilist policies and the subservient position of colonies.
o Boston Massacre
§ Bostonians resented British troops assigned to protect customs officials from being attacked by Sons of Liberty.
· Crispus Attucks.
§ Soldiers defended by Adams
o Now anti-British sentiment thinking they were deliberately conspiring against colonial ideals.
§ Committees of Correspondence = suspicious letters
· Gaspee Incident
§ Boston Tea Party against the British East India Company attempting to help it out.
o Led to Intolerable Acts.
§ Lord North = Coercive Acts as well as Quebec Act (which was supposed to be unrelated)
§ Closed boston port, reduced power of MA legislature, let royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in England, and Quartering Act.
o Quebec Act was supposed to be separate, but its allowance of Roman Catholicism as well as gov without rep = attack on colonial ideals.
· Would all lead to American Revolution, added by the Enlightenment sentiment
o Briefly mention: John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, reflected in Declaration of Independence, “all men created equal”, “give me liberty or give me death” – Patrick Henry.
· CONFLICT BETWEEN virtual representation and actual representation.
American Revolution (1775 – 1783)
Brief Causes: See Above
· Also mention: First Continental Congress.
o Intolerable Acts led all colonies except Georgia to send to FCC 1774 in Philadelphia.
o Simply wanted to protest parliamentary intrusions on their rights and restore relationship w/ crown.
o Radical faction from Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, John Adams.
§ Moderate faction – George Washington, John Dickinson
§ Conservative delegates = John Jay, Joseph Galloway.
o Concluded the Suffolk Resolves – rejected Intolerable Acts, wanted immediate repeal = more boycotts.
o Declaration of Rights and Grievances as petition to king.
§ Conciliatory gesture, recog Parliament’s authority to regulate commerce.
o Creation of the Association w/ urged creation of committees to enforce econ sanctions of Suffolk Reserves.
o Second congress if not recognized, in 1775.
· Lexington and Concord, first fighting (George III declared colonies to be in a state of rebellion)
o First battle of American Revolution.
o Bunker Hill where British soldiers suffered serious casualties in attempting to get a hill.
§ Boost in nationalism and confidence.
· Second Continental Congress.
o Divided between Loyalists (Tories) and Patriots.
o Declaration of the Cuases and Necessities of taking Up Arms.
§ George Washington as chief.
o Olive Branch petition which pledged loyalty while there was training of “minute men” and economic boycotts.
§ Prohibitory Act declared states in rebellion.
· Thomas Paine’s Common Sense stirred up sentiment.
· Declaration of Independence adopted in July 4, 1776. “we hold these truths to be self-evidence: that all men are created equal … life liberty, happiness”.
IMPACT DURING WAR
· Greatly divided the public.
o Patriots v. Loyalists.
o 1/3 and 1/3, and 1/3 was neutral. 33%
o Lack of unification hindered American cause and made that apparent.
§ Tories supplied British with arms and food, raided Patriots while George Washington and army would be starving in Valley Forge.
· Involvement of blacks and Native Americans
o Both sides offered freedom to blacks if they served in army. Some like Peter Salem recognized for their bravery.
o Not good for Indians as most joined the British, promising end of western expansion.
· Poor economic conditions.
o Valley Forge – starving
o “These are the times that try men’s souls” – The Crisis Thomas Paine.
o 95% decline in trade 1775 – 1777.
o Continentals – “Not worth a Continental” – almost worthless.
· Recognition of America as a sovereign nation.
o After the turning point Battle of Saratoga which persuaded French to join war against Britain – openly allied them w/ Americans.
o After Battle of Yorktown, last battle and American victory.
o Treaty of Paris result of Battle of Yorktown and provided that
§ Britain recognize US as independent nation.
§ Mississippi River be western boundary.
§ Amer = fishing rights.
§ Amer pay debts owed and honor Loyalist claims.
· POLITICAL REORGANIZATION right after war.
o During war, tried to define powers of new central government.
o State constitutions written by 10 of 13 former colonies.
§ Basically consisted of list of rights, separation of powers, voting, office-holding.
o Articles of Confederation
§ Central government very weak b/c of anti-strong gov from George III.
§ Consisted of just one congress, was unicameral and each state was given one vote.
· Unanimous vote required to amend
· VERY inflexible.
§ CANNOT regulate commerce and collect taxes. No exec power to enforce own laws.
§ Given burden of leading the divided 13 colonies and accomplished Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance of 1787.
§ But problems included.
· Financial – most war debts not paid.
· Lack of united front = no foreign recognition.
· Shays’ Rebellion = inability of AoC to respond.
· SOCIAL CHANGE
o Abolition of aristocratic titles.
§ No more primogeniture.
§ Weakened by confiscation of large estates owned by Loyalists.
o Separation of Church and State
§ Anglican Church which was closely tied w/ king disestablished in South.
§ Congregational Church soon lost state support in North.
o Women
§ Patriots and Loyalists depended on active support of women.
§ Maintained the colonial economy. Provided food and clothing.
· Still remained second-class status, and unanswered pleas of “remember the ladies” by Abigail Adams.
o Slavery
§ Institution of slavery contradicted spirit of Revolution.
§ Continental Congress voted to abolish importation of slaves and most states went along w/ prohibition of slavery.
· Most northern states ended slavery.
§ But majority of southern slaveowners believed that slave labor essential to economy.
· New burden of political organization.
o Foreign problems where weak government could not stop persecution of Loyalists and Britain from placing restrictions on trade and continuing to maintain posts in western frontier.
· Economic weakneses.
o Trade wars between colonies.
o Annapolis Convention hosted conference in Mt. Vernon.
§ Discussed ways to improve commercial relations among states. James Madison and Alexander Hamilton to discuss having a Philadelphia.
o Drafting Constitution at Constitutional Convention.
§ 55 white male delegates at Philadelphia.
§ Modify AoC.
· Representation – Virginia Plan and New Jersey Plan, resolved by Great Compromise for bicameral Congress.
§ Slavery – 3/5 Compromise and abolishment of slave trade to 1808.
§ Commercial Compromise allowed Congress to regulate interstate commerce and placing tariffs (though not on exports).
o Conflict between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
§ Federalist Papers which argued for strengthening the government to preserve Union.
o Initially argument against Federalists was not including Bill of Rights ,but later included Bill of Rights.
· Economic weaknesses = the sovereign nation established, having the burdens of trade, as well as integration of this into the AOC.
o Political one of the stronger paragraphs, talking about the establishment of a new political government.
o Social status changing from the status of blacks to changes in status of women. More changes incl. Removal of aristocracy, separation of church and state, as well as rights secured in bill of Rights?
· Political struggles – Newburgh Conspiracy.
Effects of War with Indians
War of 1812 (1812 – 1814)
Brief causes
· Barbary Pirates first brought issue of “freedom of the seas” to foreign policy issues.
o Jefferson’s removal of a strong militarh Challenges to US neutrality.
§ Napoleonic wars led to conflict between naval blockades of enemy ports between France and Britain.
§ Chesapeake Leopard affair. Where British warship fired on US warship.
· Anti-british feelings ran high.
o Led to attempts to prevent going into war.
§ Embargo Act which overestaimted British dependence on American goods.
· Devastating effect on US economy.
§ Madison had non-intercourse actb. Macon’s Bill No. 2 and with Napoleon’s deception, led to war.
· Immediate causes:
o Freedom of the seas.
§ British and France had no interest in respecting neutral rights.
o Frontier pressures led to anti- British sentiment. British aided Te cumseh and Prophet and their attacks.
o WAR HAWKS which represented eagerness for war w/ Britain. Led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun which argued that this would be way to defend American honor, gain Canada, destroy Native Amer. Resistance.
IMPACT DURING THE WAR
· Quids rose in opposition to the war. Saw it as “Madison’s War”.
o Commercial interests and religious ties to Protestantism made them more sympathetic to Protestant British.
o Led to Hartford Convention which led to the swift decline of the Federalists.
o Would eventually lead to the POLITICAL effect of the Era of Good Feelings.
· Brief campaigns in the war: Perry with many naval victories, the Chesapeake Campaign which British had burned the capital. Led to Francis Scott Key’s “The Star Spangled Banner”
o Andrew Jackson and his victories against the Creeks. And a good victory at Battle of New Orleans which technically wasn’t part of the war.
· TREATY OF GHENT ended the war.
o Halt to fighting.
o Status quo ante bellum.
o Said nothing of the grievances that led to war.
§ NO concessions in impressments, blockades, maritime differences.
o Was a stalemate with no clear victory on either side.
o Important figures were John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay.
o British agreed to relinquish claims and forts in NW territory (again).
§ Both countries pledged towards ending slave trade.
o Amer GAIN INFLUENCE as sea power. NOTHING about freedom of seas.
o US chose not to enforce anti-slave trade of treaty and objected to British efforst to stop Amer. Slave ships.
· Political recognition
o US gained the respect of other nations having survived second war with great power of Britain.
o Marked last attempt to invade Canada to take it as part of colonies.
o Era of Good Feelings (above)
o End of Native Americans in West b/c they were abandoned by British allies.
o War heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison would later both become presidents.
o Strong feeling of American nationalism and growing belief that US future was in west and not in Europe.
§ Was the “second war of independence”
§ Nationalism soared after Battle of New Orleans victory.
o Did not question the need for a strong navy and Republican Congress authorized maintaining of a large army and navy.
· Economic growth
o As European goods became unavailable due to British naval blockade, more US factories build, Amer. Took big step towards industrial self-sufficiency.
o Started the American Industrial Revolution after Eli Whitney’s invention of interchangeable parts and the cotton gin would lead to massive industrialization of the North. Also aided by the creation of the Lowell system which led to the factory.
§ Monroe passes the Tariff of 1816 as the first protective tariff to protect US factories from the ruin of War of 1812.
§ South and West, which had opposed tariffs in the past, generally supported this tariff, thinking that it was needed for national prosperity.
o Henry Clay’s American System as part of the economic nationalism that started after War of 1812.
§ Protective tariffs.
§ National bank.
§ International improvements.
- Separation of New England
o Senate vote 19 to 13; close divisions showed sectional and partisan split among the fighting.
o Minority of Federalist extremists proposed secession from the Union
o “Blue Light” Federalists helped British know of escape of American ships.
o Federalist farmers supplied foodstuffs to Canada and enabled British armies to invade New York, where New England gold lenders most likely supported Biritsh Exchequer more than the federal Treasury.
o New England states refused state militia beyond state borders.
o Was called “Madison’s War”
- Hartford Convention
o Represented the Federalists only
o Timothy Pickering, Secretary of State in Washington’s second term and John Adams, proposed secession of New England from Union.
o Pro-British Federalists in New England resented Republican’s support from Napoleon and the French Revolution, who they regarded as the “Corsican butcher”
o Failed invasions of Canada, originally unsupported by the Federalists, as it would add more agrarian states to the Northwest.
o Called for by MA in CT, 1814-1815 when the fall of New Orleans seemed imminent.
§ Required financial assistance from the government to provide for money lost in trade.
§ Attempted to strength government by proposing amendments
· House of Congress to require 2/3 vote to declare war, place restrictions on foreign trade, and admit new states to Union.
· Naturalized citizens to not hold any office (though Alien and Sedition Acts were repealed, the 5 years requirement would still impede Jeffersonian power.
· No “Virginia dynasty”, no two successive presidents to be of same state.
· No president to have more than one term – only Federalist was John Adams who served only one term. All 3 other presidents were Virginians and served two terms.
· 3/5 clause to be abolished to limit power of the South
§ HV after trio arrived at Washington, news of victory from New Orleans and Ghent catalyzed the decline and death of the Federalist Party.
- Prowar and anti-war (sectionalism)
o Pro-War feelings in the South. War-hawks incl. John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay.
o Anti-feds and republicans favored French while War of 1812 was generally against British.
o South saw the war as a way to attack Indians, gain Florida and Canada, and push British out of Northwest.
o New England merchants, Federalist politicians and Quids opposed the war.
§ Federalists thought of it as Repub scheme to get Canada and Florida.
- Social effects: Indians
o In west the War of 1812 was primarily anti-Indian.
§ Frontiersmen convinced that British had been supplying Indians w/ weapons.
o Previously Tecumseh and Prophet have been creating an Indian Confederacy to resist encroachment.
§ In the War of 1812, the Battle of Tippecanoe had William Henry Harrison destroy the Shawnees.
o Forced to cede large tracts of land to western-moving, Manifest-Destiny-fulfilling Americans.
Mexican-American War ( - 1848)
IMMEDIATE CAUSES
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS
o Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo (1848) ends the war.
§ Provided for the Mexican Cession
· Was California + Nevada and Utah territories.
§ Paid $15 million for Mexican Cession.
§ Would take over Mexican debts to US citizens.
o US now extends from Atlantic to Pacific, “sea to shining sea”
§ Important theme of Manifest Destiny accomplished.
§ Bad relations between US and Mexico which would lead to things such as Pancho Villa raids and Zimerman Telegraph as a prelude to WWI.
§ Increased sectionalist tensions between North and South.
§ Introduced idea of popular sovereignty.
o Was a PRELUDE to the Civil War as it raised question of slavery in the cession
§ Wilmot Proviso – wanted to forbid slavery in any of territories from Mexico. Was not passed.
§ Renewed sectional debate over extension of slavery.
· Many northerners saw this as southern plot to extend the “slave power”.
§ Trained generals such as Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant.
o Many southerners dissatisfied w/ territorial gains and carried on momentum of Manifest Destiny à SOMEWHAT IRRELEVANT.
§ Ostend Manifesto where Polk offered to purchase Cuba from Spain for $100 million. Attempted to take it by force.
· President Pierce sent diplomats to Ostend to secretly negotiate to buy Cuba, but information leaked and scheme forced to be dropped.
§ Walker Expedition where expansionists William Walker took over Nicaragua (attempted to create proslavery southern empire) but later failed.
§ Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was a means for British and US to check each other, that neither nation would take exclusive control of future canal route in Central America.
§ Gadsden Purchase (1853) Mexicans agreed to sell it for $10 million. Originally to increase argument for southern RR.
o AGITATION of slavery~!
§ Wilmot Proviso would have upset Compromise of 1820 and delicate balance of 15 free and 15 slave states.
· Its defeat in Senate intensified sectional feelings.
§ The Free Soil movement where northern Democrats and Whigs supported.
· Wanted end of expansion of slavery.
· Free Soil Party
· “free soil, free labor, and free men”.
§ Southern whites saw above as violation of rights
§ Proposal of popular sovereignty where people in state determine the status.
§ Compromise of 1850 involving CA, part of Mexican Cession.
· By the “Great Compromiser” Henry Clay.
· Cali = free state, Mexican Cession to be determined by popular sovereignty, slave trade to be abolished in DC, and new Fugitive Slave Law to enforce it strictly.
§ Fugitive Slave Law = track down slaves who had escaped and return them to southern owners.
o Growth of sectional tension
§ Underground railroad and Harriet Tubman (and soon Frederick Douglas and Sojourner Truth) cont to emancipate blacks during Civil War.
§ Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Exposed the evils of the “peculiar institution”
§ Impending Crisis of the South argued against slavery as well.
§ Northerners who previously didn’t support abolitionist cause now concerned about the moral issues.
§ Kansas Nebraska Act
· Promoted by Stephen A. Douglas, champion of popular sovereignty.
o Motivated by railroad interests.
· Proposed that Nebraska Territory be open to popular sovereignty (these were territories north of 36 30 determined by MO Compromise)
§ Greatly renewed controversy as it had repealed MO Compromise of 1820.
o Indirectly led to Bleeding Kansas between proslavery and antislavery groups.
§ John Brown attacked proslavery farm settlements on Pottawatomie Creek. Violent abolitionist.
§ Reached the political field as well with the hitting of Senator Charles Sumner.
§ Lecompton Constitution was determined arbitrarily as it did not have the support of the majority.
· Buchanan accepted it, rejected by Congress.
§ Dred Scott case which said that backs were not citizens, Congress could not exclude slavery from any territory, and Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional.
o Increased sectional tensions as it declared that all parts of western territories open to slavery.
o Lincoln Douglas Debates for nomination of senate seat.
§ “Little Giant” as champion of popular sovereignty.
§ Lincoln would speak out against a “house divided” and was a moderate.
§ When Lincoln questioned how Douglas could support both popular sovereignty and Dred Scott decision, he responded w/ Freeport Doctrine w/ declared that slavery could not exist in community if local citizens did not pass and enforce laws for maintaining it.
· Did not go far enough to support Dred Scott, aliented southern Democrats.
o John Brown’s raids at Harpers Ferry.
o Last ditch Crittenden compromise failed.
o To Civil War
Civil War (1861 – 1865)
IMMEDIATE CAUSES
o See Above
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS
o End of War
§ Effect of Union blockade and Sherman’s march devastated the South.
§ Lee continued to fail (Antietam marked turning point).
§ Surrender at Appomatox.
o END of slavery.
§ Emancipation Proclamation after the Battle of Antietam declared the purpose of the North to end slavery applicable to the states in rebellion.
§ 13th Amendment slavery abolished – ratified.
§ Immediately after the proclamation, approx. ¼ of slave population would be freed and went to Union.
o Political change
§ Secession of southern states created a Republican majority in both houses of Congress.
· Still had differences between radical faction (immediate abolition) and moderate faction (Free Soilers chiefly concerned about econ for whites.
· Rest of democrats were Peace Democrats and Copperheads who opposed the war and wanted peace.
§ Civil liberties change
· Revocation of habeas corpus in states where estaimated 13,000 people arrested on suspicion w/o right to habeaus corpus. (without trial).
· Ex Parte Milligan would later rule that gov acted imprioerly when during war, civilians were subject to military trial.
§ Drafting
· Congress’ Conscription Act made all men 20-45 liable for military service, but could pay an exemption fee.
· Opposition from poor laborers.
§ Political dominance of North.
· Supremacy of fed gov over states.
· New meaning and legitimacy to concept of American democracy.
o Gettysburg Address that nation was “dedicated to proposition that all men are created equal”.
o Economic change
§ Raising tariffs (Morrill Tariff), adding excise taxes, first income tax and raising of Greenbacks to raise money for war.
· Greenbacks = inflation, and prices in north rose 80%.
§ National Banking System to manage added revenue, first unified banking network since AJ killed the BUS.
o Modernization of northern society
§ Worker’s wages did not keep up w/ inflation.
§ Modern industrial economy accelerated by war.
· Econ growth of north and west.
§ Morrill Tariff Act, Homestead Act promoted settlement of Great Plains to whoever will “improve it” for 5 years.
§ Morill Land Grant Act encouraged states to use sale of fed land grants to maintain agricultural colleges.
§ Pacific Railway Act building of transcontinental railroad over northern route to link economies of California and western territories.
· Originally to tie West closer to Northern cause.
o SOCIAL CHANGE
§ Women at work, took factory jobs and had critical role as military nurses.
§ Field of nursing now open to women, and enormouse responsibilities gave a boost to the women suffrage movement.
§ End of slavery secured in 13th Amendment, 4 mil people now “free”.
· Economic hardship, political oppression would continue for generations, but still important step.
· Devastated the “slave power” in the South which depended so much on slavery.
§ American democracy and capitalistic economy strengthened by this second American Revolution
o RECONSTRUCTION
o Lincoln moderate
§ Reconstruction Proclamation (1863)
· Pardons to southerners who took oath of allegiance, accepted 13th Amendment.
§ 10 % plan = loyal state gov can be formed.
· Wade Davis Bill = conflict between the radical Repubs and moderates.
§ Freedmens Bureau led by Oliver O. Howard which aimed to provide food, shelter, medical aid for blacks and homeless whites.
· Frustrated by Johnson = anti-black sentiment great in pro-southern sympathizers.
o Johnson
§ Establishment of southern governments = accepted 13th Amendment, negated debts, repudiated secession, yet had literacy tests, poll taxes, grandfather clauses.
· Black Codes adopted by southern legislatures greatly reduced rights of Blacks.
§ Vetoed bill increasing Freemen’s Bureau and Civil Rights Bill
§ Anti-black, pro-southern sentiment reflected in “swing around the circle”.
· Led to Republican domination in both houses of Congress through “waving the bloody shirt” which would handicap presidential position during these years.
§ Personally pardoned ex-officials of Confed = Alexander Stephens elected to Congress.
o Congress and role in Recon (2nd phase, radical Congressional Reconstruction)
§ Leading radicals Thaddeus Stephens, Charles Sumner
§ Civil Rights Act = ALL blacks are US citizens (repudiated Dred Scott)
· Led to 14th Amendment “due process”.
§ For first time states req. to uphold rights of citizens.
§ Military Reconstruction Act imposed martial law in South.
§ To lessen the anti-black Johnson, had Army Act and Tenure of Office Act.
· Led to impeachment of Johnson.
o End of Reconstruction in 1877
§ Successes
· All southern men allowed to vote.
· More democracy.
· Reform movement for more education.
· New industrial development.
· Limited time – blacks in office.
· Freedmen’s Bureau
o Hospitals incl. Howard University handed out free meals.
· 13th (end slavery), 14th (due process), 15th (black men get vote).
§ Failures
· High tax rates to pay for industrialization alients voters.
· Propaganda against north wins converts
o Scalawags and carpet baggers.
· Corrupted new governments.
· KKK
· Did not change aristocracy structure.
· Blacks freed, but w/ nothing. Only 5 % of blacks owned land.
· Jim Crow laws just like slave codes.
· Plessy v. Ferguson “separate but equal”
o 2nd worse decision after Dred Scott.
Spanish-American War ( - 1868)
IMMEDIATE CAUSES
o American public had jingoism
o Despite isolationist Cleveland and McKinley, still had many contributing factors
§ Cuban revolt against Spanish colonial rule. Spanish responded via General Weyler’s autocracy to suppress revolt.
o Yellow journalism by William Randolph Hurst New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World.
§ Exaggerated accounts of Spanish atrocities”
§ “You furnish the pictures and I’ll furnish the war”.
o De Lome letter
§ Letter written by Spanish minister that highly criticized McKinley.
§ Increased anti-Spanish sentiment.
o Sinking of Maine
§ The ship Maine shot down when it was in “goodwill” trip to Havana, Cuba.
§ 260 Amer. Die.
§ Yellow press accused Spain of deliberately blowing up ship.
· Experts later = probably accident.
o Led to McKinley’s declaration of war.
§ Added the Teller Amendment to declare that America was not in it for imperialism – will “free” the Cubans.
BRIEF EVENTS OF WAR
o Theodore Roosevelt expansionist ordered Dewey to take Phillipines, and had an ambush at Manila Bay.
o Invasion of Cuba w/ TR leading the rough riders and the victory at San Juan Hill.
o Gave Cleveland (previously opposed) context to annex Hawaii.
TREATY OF PARIS
o Ends the war
o Spanish renounced all rights to Cuba.
o Ceded Puerto Rico, Guam and the Phillipines to the US.
§ US pays $20 mil for Phillippines.
o Showed importance of US as leader of world
§ US imperialism
§ Roosevelt as national hero.
o Phillippine Question
§ Anti-imperialists against because thought that for first time would be taking possession of populated area w/ foreign race, culture.
§ Led to protests, Emilio Aguinaldo now leads guerilla fighters against US control.
§ Wanted to help the “little brown brothers” as Taft calls them.
· Appointed the Phillippine Commission to make appropriate recs of gov.
§ Later American dollars used to improve roads, sanitation, public health.
· Econ ties esp. in sugar increased.
· ^ Filipino emigration to US
· English adopted as second language.
o POLITICAL: Led to insular cases
§ Did US constitution apply to territories, incl. Phillipines and Puerto Rico?
§ William Jennings Bryan argued affirmative, while others negative.
§ Conclusion – citizenship not granted.
o POLITICAL: Cuba and Platt Amendment.
§ US troops didn’t want to withdraw troops from Cuba immediately.
§ In Platt Amendment Cuba told to
· Never sign a treaty w/ foreign power that impaired its indep
· Permit US to intervene in Cuba’s affairs to preserve indep and maintain law, order.
· Allow US to maintain naval bases in Cuba.
o SOCIAL – anti imperialism.
§ Anti-Imperialist League formed to fight McKinley’s expansionist moves.
· Included William James, Mark Twain and Samuel Gompers and Andrew Carnegie
§ Imperialists argued back w/ Rudyard Kiping’s White Man’s Burden.
· US must help uplift (while exploiting) underfed, underprivileged people of world.
· William Jennings Bryan apparently came to the help of supporting the treaty (arguing that we could then sooner give Filipinos their independence) so approved 1899.
o POLITICIAL –issues in the new territories.
§ Puerto Ricans in poverty.
· Foraker Act gave them limited degree of popular government and later 1917 granted them US citizenship
· Helped in education, sanitation, transportation but many Puerto Ricans still wanted independence.
§ Cuba under guidance of military governor General Leonard Wood (ex-rough rider)
· ^ education, finance, agriculture, public health.
· Dr. Walter Reed = mosquito proved to be carrier of yellow fever.
· Removed fear of epidemics in the area.
o Social: Nationalism
§ Reaffirmed US position as world power.
§ John Hay called it a “splendid little war”.
§ America did not start war w/ imperialistic motives, but after it would wound up being imperialistic
· TR’s big stickism, Taft’s dollar diplomacy. “Big Brother policy”, having the “Yankee Lake”, all that.
§ Inspired by Captain Mahan’s Influence of Sea Power and its big navyism.
· Elihu Root > War Department head > War College.
§ Unity of North and South
World War I
Political
Use of propaganda
- Committee on Public Information led by George Creel waged a “war of words” to convince Americans to support war.
o Those who spoke out against war were labeled as “un-American” and persecuted.
o Sauerkraut renamed as “Liberty Cabbage”
o Stopping of German language classes in school.
o Growing nativisim and anti-foreignism in the country.
o Had vaudeville performers, movie starts depict the heroism of “boys” (US soldiers” and the villainy of the Kaiser.
o Used four minute men to mobilize the public through speeches.
- Espionage Act and Sedition Act led to prosecution of socialists and anti-advocates.
o Eugene v. Debs and leaders of the IWW ALL SENT TO PRISON.
o Greatly challenged the freedom of speech.
- In Schenck v. US Supreme Court ruled that freedom of speech could be suspended in wartime if the speech had a “clear and present danger” to the nation.
Massive drafting of soldiers
- Selective Service Act (1917) which had the system of “selective service” devised by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker as a democratic way of ensuring all groups in population be called into service.
o 2.8 million called into service.
o Draftees provided over half of 4.7 million which would eventually be American soldiers.
o Involvement of blacks as part of the army, and also had 400,000 blacks serve in WWI, though often in segregated units.
§ All were barred from being in Marine Corps, and many only had construction jobs.
o WEB Du Bois thought that fighting to “make the world safe for democracy” would earn them equal rights at home when the war ended (he would be bitterly disappointed).
- DEMOBILIZATION AFTER THE WAR.
o Suddenly 4 million American men who had taken from economy were back home and out of uniform. Took employment from women and African Americans who had previously thrived on war work.
§ Business boom of wartime went flat, and war production fell off.
o As a result US farmers suffered falling prices.
§ In cities, consumers went on buying spree leading to inflation and short boom in 1920. But after 1921, 10% of American workforce unemployed.
Finishing the War: 14 Points
- Ww previously had political stife kept to a minimum during the war crisis.
o Under slogan “Politics is Adjourned”
- But after WW personally appealed for Democratic victory in congressional elections, would put in party conflict back once again.
o Also WW refused to carry one Republican to rep for mission to Paris to discuss Treaty of Versailles
- Attempted to pass the League
o Met great opposition from Senator Henry Cabot Lodge.
- Paris Conference had power fall into Big Four (Wilson, Premier Orlando [Italy], PM George of Britain, Premier Clemenceau of France.
o Would give up part of 14 Points to make League Covenant to start.
o Back at home Republicans would not accept the treaty. Opposition from Hiram Johnson and William Borah.
§ Also WW refused to compromise because Senate didn’t like how the US, through collective security, were bound to help.
§
Economic
Great mobilization of money and supplies.
- Bernard Baruch, a Wall Street broker, volunteered to use extensive contacts in industry to help win war.
- Under his direction led the War Industries Board which set production priorities and established centralized control over raw materials and prices.
o Hampered by strong laissez fair attitudes
o Greatest success in taking over railroads to speed war supplies to and from factories.
- Herbert Hoover took charge of the Food Administration which encouraged American households to eat less meat and bread so that more food could be shipped abroad for French and British troops.
o Conservation would pay off as in 2 years, US overseas shipment of food would TRIPLE.
- Harry Garfield volunteered to head the Fuel Administration which directed at efforts to save coal and energy.
o Not important factories were closed and daylight saving time went into effect for the first time.
- Former president William Howard Taft headed the National War Labor Board.
o Labor won concessions during the war
- Previously were denied those.
o Wages rose and the 8 hour day became more common and union membership increased.
- After war in most heavily unionized sectors such as coal mining, manufacturing, RR, real wages had risen more than 20% over prewar levels.
- War Department established where they had the “work or fight” rule of 1918.
o Threatened to draft any who were unemployed
o A strong discouragement to go on strike.
- Wilson also launched a shipbuilding as well as endorse a modest buildup of army. But army still ranked 15th which was very poor.
Required a great amount of money
- War required a lot of money, and Wilson’s government managed to raise $33 billion in two years though loans and taxes.
o Conducted 4 massive drives to convince Americans to put savings into federal government Liberty Bonds.
§ Followed by a Victory Loan campaign in 1919.
o Congress increased personal income and corporate taxes and placed an excise tax on luxury goods to get more money.
Suppression of labor union rights
- AFL led by Samuel Gompers promised not to strike during duration of WAR
o Group would be rewarded w/ doubling membership after war.
- IWW would instead strike and cripple industries.
o “I Won’t Works”
o Led to their downfall.
- Great Migration of blacks led to the failure of the US steel strike.
Steel companies just brought in 30,000 blacks to keep mills running.
Social
Increase of civil rights.
- Women encouraged to entire work force to help war effort.
o Positive public support for women’s suffrage.
o Will lead to 19th Amendment passed on 1920.
o Previously progressive feminists were also pacifists and these found a voice in Alice Pauls’s National Woman’s Party.
- Demonstrated peacefully against “Kaiser Wilson”
- Larger part of the suffrage movement through National American Woman Suffrage Association which supported Wilson’s war
o Wanted to broaden democracy.
o Endorsed women suffrage as a “vitally necessary war measure”.
o Would lead to 1917 NY state legislature voting for women suffrage, and soon many other states followed.
o 80 years after Seneca Falls, 19th Amendment ratified in 1920.
- Despite political victory, and although Women’s Bureau created in Department of Labor, most women workers toon gave up war jobs.
o Congress also affirmed support for women back in homews with Sheppard Towner Maternity Act.
o But overall war was good for woman political rights.
- Blacks in the Great Migration to the North to war industry jobs in north and west.
o Led to riots break out in St. Louis and Chicago during war and in Pittsburg in 1919.
War Hysteria and anti – Foreinism
- Allowed nativist groups to carry out their prejudices on “disloyal” minorities.
o The American Protective League mounted “Hate the Hun” campaigns and attacked all things German, from performing Beethoven’s music to cooking of sauerkraut.
- 1919 widespread unhappiness and growing fears of socialism fueled by the Bolshevik revolution in Russia.
o Anti-German hysteria turned to anti-Communist hysteria known as the Red Scare.
- Palmer Raids.
o Series of unexplained bombings led Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, the “Fighting Quaker” to establish special office under J. Edgar Hoover to gather information on radicals.
§ Mass arrests of anarchists, Socialists, labor agitators.
o Over 6000 people arrested late 1919 – early 1920, based on minimal criminal evidence.
- Also had the deportation of 249 alleged “aliens” via Buford.
- More antiforeinism and anti-redism in “judicial lynching” where Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti sentenced to death penalty with prejudice in judge and jurh.
- Race Riots
o As a result of migration of blacks to northern cities during war.
o White resented competition.
o Largest in St. Louis in 1918.
o By 1919 racial tensions led to violence and in Chicago¸40 people killed, 500 injured.
§ Increase in racial violence and lynching by whites.
- HEYDAY of KKK
o Very popular in Bible Belt
o Strongest membership in postwar era 1920s.
o Spawned by postwar reaction, supported the nativist attitudes of war during the time.
Mass influx of
Labor Conflicts after War
- Unions had previously gained ground in Progressive era. Also offered a square deal under TR’s administration and protection from Sherman Antitrust Act through Clayton Antitrust Act.
o During war, also made important gains.
o But in post-war era, strikes of 1919 due to fear of revolution turned public opinion against unions.
CONCLUSION
Would lead to the Roaring 20s after war.
UP TO WORLD WAR I. Check out further installments, might possibly include WWII and the Cold War
0 comments:
Post a Comment