o 1960s economic boom slowly dying.
o Increasing producitivity, US workers doubled average standard of living within 25 years of WWII.
§ Entire 1970s did not have productivity advance of one year in previous 2 days.
§ Economy only failed to decline only b/c of addition of working wives’ wages to family income.
Sources of Stagnation
o More teenagers, women working.
o Declining investment in new machinery, heavy costs of compliance of gov projects, shift from economy from manufacturing to services.
o Vietnam War a drain on tax dollars.
§ Not spent on education.
§ Rising oil prices in 1970s.
§ Military spending > inflationary b/c put dollars in people’s hands w/o adding to the supply of goods that they can buy.
o Cost of living more than tripled after Nixon.
o Small incentive to modernize plants and seek more efficient methods.
§ Most of steel, automobiles, consumer electronics outdates and US lost its dominance over them.
Nixon “Vietnamizes” the War”
o Nixon urged US to “stop shouting at each other”.
o Announced Vietnamization to withdraw US troops from South Vietnam.
§ Evolved into Nixon Doctrine where US would honor existing defense commitments but Asians will have to fight their own wars.
§ Distasteful to “doves” b/c they wanted immediate, not extended withdraw
o Nixon appealed to “silent majority” who presumably supported war.
§ Then Agnew attacks “misleading” news media = dislike for peace groups.
o Vietnam War 3rd most costly foreign war in nation’s experience.
§ Least privileged Americans fought.
§ Many blacks and high share of fatalities.
o My Lai Massacre and attacked on Cambodia. Not good.
Cambodianizing the Vietnam War
o Viet Cong used Cambodia for troops, weapons, supplies.
o US forces ordered to attack Cambodia to clean out enemies.
§ Kent State University peace protest > National Guard fired in crowd.
o Nixon then withdrew US troops from Cambodia.
§ Deepened bitterness b/w hawks and doves
§ Senate repealed “Gulf of Tonkin” blank check.
§ Gov reduced draft calls and period of draft.
o 26th Amendment lowered voting age to 18
o all measures to make youth happier.
o 1971 mass rallies from coast to coast.
o Pentagon Papers leaked to Times by Daniel Ellsberg about 1st Amendment, but was top secret Pentagon study of US involvement in Vietnam War
Nixon’s Détente with Beijing and Moscow
o USSR China, rival interpretations of Marxism
o Henry A Kissinger shuttle diplomacy.
§ Begun meeting secretly w/ North Vietnamese officials
o Went to China, Great Wall of China 1972.
o Went to Moscow, hungry for American foodstuffs, ushered in era of détente.
§ Grain deal of 1972 US will sell Soviets a lot of grain.
§ ABM treaty anti-ballistic missile treaty, limited each nation to 2 clusters of defensive missiles.
§ SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks to freeze numbers of long range nuclear missiles temporarily.
o But for ABM, US did MIRVs anyways (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles)
§ So arms race went up again.
o But détente set stage for US exist from Vietnam
A New Team on the Supreme Bench
o Earl Warren liberal Chief Justice.
§ Decisions reflected concern for individual.
§ Griswold v. Connecticut STRUCK DOWN state law prohbiting use of contraceptives.
§ “right of privacy” soon to protect women’s abortion rights.
§ Gideon v. Wainwright all defendants in serious criminal cases entitled to legal counsel.
§ Escobedo and Miranda ensured right of accused to remained silent, and to enjoy other protections.
o New York Times v. Sullivan public figures could only sue for libel if they can prove that “malice” motivated their defamers
§ More freedom of press
o Engel v. Vitale and School District of Abington Township v. Schempp voted against required school prayers and Bible reading in public schools!
§ Southern legislatures nullified the Supreme Court decision, but in turn were overruled by high tribunal.
o Reynolds v. Sims ruled that state legislatures both upper and lower houses would have to be reapportioned according to population, irrespective of cows
o Nixon sought to solve the liberalness by appointing several chief justices.
§ Warren E. Burger and four other conservative judges.
o Burger Court still somewhat liberal b/c of Roe v. Wade
Nixon on the Home Front
o Food Stamps and Medicade increased proportions as well as Aid to Families with Dependent Children
o Nixon made Supplemental Securities Income generous benefits to indigent aged, blind, disabled.
o Signed bill that raised Social Security and provided for automatic increases when cost of living rose more than 3% per year.
o All the above fueled inflation
§ But Nixon expanded Great Society, reduced nation’s poverty rate to 11%!
o Philadelphia Plan required construction trade unions working on federal contracts in Philadelphia to “establish goals and timetables” for hiring black apprentices.
§ Altered meaning of affirmative action, now makes privileges on certain groups.
§ Supreme Court support Griggs v. Duke Power Co where black justices prohibited intelligence tests and other devices that excluded minorities or women.
· Critics = “reverse discrimination”.
o Nixon > Environmental Protection Agency and companion Occupational Health and Safety Administration
o Air Pollution Control Office
o Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring which exposed DDT harmful effects which led to Clean Air Act and Endangered Species Act
o Congress later refused to pay after 1972 to pay for any of huge irrigation projects.
o Inflation > Nixon to impose a 90 day wage and prize freeze 1971.
§ Nixon took US off gold standard.
· Devalued dollar
§ Ended “bretton Woods” system of int’l currency stabilization.
o Southern strategy used by Nixon to get southern votes, to appeal to white voters by soft-pedaling civil rights and opposing school busing to achieve racial balance.
§ But foreign policy dominated presidential campaign 1972.
The Nixon Landslide of 1972
o 1972 Vietnam “demilitarized” zone
o Nixon laucnches massive bombing attacks.
§ Caused George McGovern to fight for Democratic nomination, promised to pull remaining US troops out of Vietnam.
· His appeal to minorities, feminists, leftists and youth aliented working class backbond of Democrats.
§ And his running mate Thomas Eagleton alienated him.
o Dr. Kissinger says “peace is at hand” which gave Nixon a boost.
o Nixon wins another landslide but Republican election losses in House and Senate
Bombing North Vietnam to the Peace Table
o Due to bombing, Vietnam ceasefire 1973.
o “peace with honor” where US agrees to withdraw troops to get some POW.
§ South Vietnam to have limited support of US but no more manpower help.
§ North Vietnam to keep troops in South Vietnam.
Watergate Woes
o Republican Committee for the Reelection of the President engaged in spying of Democrats in Watergate.
o Nixon covers up via illegal use of CIA and FBI.
o Senator Sam Ervin conducted televised series of hearings. John Dean III testified at involvement of gov officials in White House.
The Great Tape Controversey.
o Nixon doesn’t produce tapes, says “executive privilege”.
§ Agnew resigns for some other case.
o Congress via 25th Amendment replaces Agnew w/ Gerald Ford
o Saturday Night Massacre where Archibald Cox issued that tapes be given.
The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers Act
o US air force secretly conducted raids against North Vietnamese.
§ After ending them, Pol Pot regime.
o Congressional opposition to expansion of presidential war making powers > War Powers Act.
§ Required president to report to Congress within 48 hours of committing troops to foreign conflict.
o Result in New Isolationism
§ Increasing demands in Congress for reducing American armed forces abroad.
The Arab Oil Embargo and the Energy Crisis
o Six Day War US helped Israels.
o OPEC > 1973 oil crisis.
o “energy crisis” led to approving Alaska pipeline, national speed limit.
o End of the era of cheap and abundant energy.
o After embargo price of oil quadrupled.
o US > International Energy Agency as counterweight to OPEC, but wouldn’t be strong yet.
The Unmaking of a President
o House Judiciary Committee demand for Watergate Tapes.
§ Nixon gave, but many tapes missing.
§ “expletive deleted” in many gaps.
o Supreme Court says, executive privilege gives you no right to erase parts.
o Went ahead to impeachment.
o Then Nixon released tapes, resigns.
The First Unelected President
o Ford which pardoned Nixon.
o Helsinki Accords where officially recognized Soviet boundaries and other Eastern European countries, and in return USSR agreed to “third basket” of agreements
§ More liberal exchanges w/ people and information w/ East and West
§ First signs of freedom, but USSR soon got rid of that when restrictions on Jewish emigration.
Feminist Victories and Defeats
o Women’s Stride for Equality on 50th anniversary marched.
o Congress passed Title IX of Education Amendments prohibited sex discrimination in fed assisted educational program or activity.
§ “Title IX” generation would reach maturity and professionalize women sports as well.
o Equal Rights Amendment > “Equality of rights under law not denied on account of sex”.
o Reed v. Reed and Frontiero v. Richardson Court challeneged sexual discrimination in legislation and employment.
o Roe v. Wade abortion OK in first trimester.
o Nixon est. nationwide public day care.
o Death of ERA because too little ratification of states. Phyllis Schlafy led the campaign to stop the ERA!.
Seventies in Black and White
o Milliken v. Bradley desegregation plans could not require students to move across school-district lines.
§ Reinforced “white flight” to suburbs.
o Allan Bakke in Supreme Court upheld claim that application to medical school turned down b/c of admission favored minority applicants.
o Court ordered University of California at Davis medical school to admit Bakke
§ Said racial factors might be taken into account in school’s overall admissions policy. Dissenters = Thurgood Marshall.
o Indians used courts to assert themselves as semi-sovereign peoples.
§ Took Wounded Knee village and Alcatraz.
§ US v. Wheeler declared that Indian tribes “unique and limited” sovereignty.
Bicentennial Campaign and Carter Victory
o Republican > Gerald Ford
o Democrat > James Earl Carter.
§ “I’ll never lie to you”
o Carter narrow victory, won votes of blacks.
o Enjoyed democratic majorities in both houses of Congress.
o Created Department of Energy and proposed tax reform and reduction.
§ Congress agreed w/ $18 bil tax cut, popularity remained relatively high.
Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy
o Rhodesia and South Africa, Carter and UN ambassador Andrew Young championed for rights for the oppressed black majority.
o Camp David Accords b/w Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin.
§ Israel withdraw from territory, Egypt recognize Israel.
o Full diplomatic relations w/ China, two treaties turning over complete ownership and control of Panama Canal.
o Détente broken when Cuban troops assisted by USSR appeared in Angola and Ethiopia to support revolutions.
Economic and Energy Woes
o Failing health of economy.
o Prices ^ 10% per year.
§ “double digit inflation”.
§ Oil prices very high.
§ Recession during Ford’s brought it down temporarily.
§ Well above 13% by 1979.
o Due to oil shocks, US can no longer be economic isolationist.
§ Previously US foreign trade no more than 10% of GNP.
§ Later 27%.
o Increased deficits in federal budget.
§ Led people to push interest rates even higher.
§ “prime rate” of banks went very high.
§ High cost of borrowing money strangled industry.
o Carter says because of dependence on foreign oil.
§ Energy crusade called for.
§ But US public indifferent
o Mohammed Reza Pahlevi installed as Shah, pro-Western.
§ Violently overthrown later and OPEC once again raised petroleum prices.
o Oil crisis of 1979 > Carter retreats to Camp David, then comes back to US public telling them public is falling into a “moral and spiritual crisis” too concerned w/ materialism.
§ Fired four cabinet secretaries.
§ Not taken well.
Foreign Affairs and Iranian Imbroglio
o Conservative critics to prevent SALT II treaty.
§ SALT II also prevented w/ USSR brigade in Cuba and Iran Hostage Crisis.
§ Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini inspired the revolutionaries accused US of wanting to attack Mecca.
o Then USSR about to enter war w/ Afghanistan.
§ Carter > embargoes grain and high tech machinery to USSR, called for boycott of Moscow Olympics.
§ Proposed Rapid Deployment Force to respond to developing crisis.
· Requested that young people register for possible military draft.
§ Afghanistan = “Russia’s Vietnam”.
§ Failure to capture Iran hostages back, public humiliation.
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